Compositions and methods for making selenocysteine containing polypeptides

ABSTRACT

Non-naturally occurring tRNASec and methods of using them for recombinant expression of proteins engineered to include one or more selenocysteine residues are disclosed. The non-naturally occurring tRNASec can be used for recombinant manufacture of selenocysteine containing polypeptides encoded by mRNA without the requirement of an SECIS element. In some embodiments, selenocysteine containing polypeptides are manufactured by co-expressing a non-naturally occurring tRNASec a recombinant expression system, such as E. coli, with SerRS, EF-Tu, SelA, or PSTK and SepSecS, and an mRNA with at least one codon that recognizes the anticodon of the non-naturally occurring tRNASec.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under GM022854 and GM122560 awarded by National Institute of Health, DE-FG02-98ER20311 awarded by the Department of Energy and 0950474 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Ser. No. 15/724,678, filed Oct. 4, 2017, which is specifically incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

REFERENCE TO THE SEQUENCE LISTING

The Sequence Listing submitted as a text file named “YU_5714_CIP_2_PCT_ST25.txt,” created on Oct. 4, 2018, and having a size of 128,961 bytes is hereby incorporated by reference pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.52(e)(5).

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The field of the invention generally relates to compositions including tRNAs and methods of using them to manufacture recombinant selenocysteine containing polypeptides.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Selenocysteine, commonly referred to as the twenty-first amino acid, is incorporated into at least 25 human proteins. Natural co-translational incorporation of selenocysteine (Sec) into proteins proceeds by a recoding process so that upon encountering the UGA codon in the messenger RNA the ribosome knows to recognize it as Sec instead of Stop. This process requires three components: (i) the aminoacyl-tRNA carrying selenocysteine, Sec-tRNA^(Sec); (ii) the specialized elongation factor, SelB, carrying Sec-tRNA^(Sec) to the ribosome, and (iii) the SECIS element, an RNA secondary structure of the mRNA just downstream of the UGA codon, that interacts with the SelB•Sec-tRNA^(Sec) complex (Böck, A, Thanbichler, M, Rother, M & Resch, A (2005), eds Ibba M, Francklyn C S, & Cusack S (Landes Bioscience, Georgetown, Tex.), pp 320-327; Yoshizawa, S & Böck, A (2009) Biochim Biophys Acta 1790:1404-1414). Additionally, in order to protect the integrity of this recoding process, Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is not recognized by the general elongation factor EF-Tu because of the presence of three base pairs that act as antideterminants (Rudinger, J, Hillenbrandt, R, Sprinzl, M & Giegé, R (1996) EMBO J 15:650-657). Sec-tRNA^(Sec) cannot be accommodated during normal translation because it is not an acceptable substrate for EF-Tu, and the SelB•Sec-tRNA^(Sec) complex will not decode in-frame UGA codons in absence of the SECIS.

Insertion of selenocysteine into a recombinant protein, for example, substitution of a naturally occurring cysteine residue for selenocysteine, can alter the function of the protein. Substituting one or more naturally occurring Cys residues in the active site of an enzyme with a Sec can increase the activity of this enzyme. Diselenide bonds have very low redox potential. Therefore, replacing disulfide bonds with diselenide or selenocysteine-cysteine bonds can lower dosage, increase half-life, increase stability, reduce toxicity, alter pharmacokinetics, change folding properties, or combinations thereof of the recombinant selenocysteine containing protein relative to a reference protein without selenocysteines, such as a naturally occurring counterpart.

However, due the presence the SECIS element as an integral part of the open reading frame (within the mRNA) encoding the protein that harbors Sec in its sequence, it is not possible to insert Sec into proteins by a standard mutational scheme or in the construction of random mutagenic libraries, and production of Sec proteins is limited to costly and inefficient methods of protein synthesis. Accordingly, there is a need for alternative methods of manufacturing selenocysteine containing polypeptides.

It is an object of the invention to provide compositions and methods for recombinant expression of proteins engineered to include one or more selenocysteine residues without the requirement of a SECIS in the mRNA encoding the protein.

It is a further object of the invention to provide non-naturally occurring proteins including one or more selenocysteine residues.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

tRNA^(Sec) and methods of using them for recombinant expression of proteins engineered to include one or more selenocysteine residues are disclosed. Typically, tRNA^(Sec) (1) can be recognized by SerRS and by EF-Tu, or variants thereof; and is characterized by one or more of the following elements: (2) when aminoacylated with serine, the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be converted to Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by SelA, or a variant thereof; (3) when aminoacylated with serine, the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be phosphorylated by PSTK or variant thereof; (4) when aminoacylated with phosphorylated serine, the Sep-tRNA^(Sec) can serve as a substrate for SepSecS or variant thereof; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1) and (2). In some embodiments, the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1), (3), and (4). In some embodiments, the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1), (2), (3), and (4). In some embodiments, the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1), (2), and (3).

Typically, the tRNA^(Sec) do not require a SECIS element in an mRNA to be incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain during translation.

Typically, the tRNA^(Sec) is a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec). The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) can be a variant of a naturally occurring tRNA. In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is includes or consists of a naturally occurring nucleic acid sequence.

In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) has a naturally occurring tRNA sequence. In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is an “allo-tRNA”. Allo-tRNAs typically have a 8/4 or 9/3 composition of the 12-bp amino-acid acceptor branch. Naturally and non-naturally occurring allo-tRNAs are provided and can be used in the disclosed compositions and methods. Many naturally occurring allo-tRNA have an anticodon that recognizes a codon inconsistent with the amino acid charged to it. For example, some of the allo-tRNAs charge with serine, but have a leucine anticodon. The non-naturally occurring allo-tRNA typically have one or more insertions, deletions, or substitutions relative to the naturally occurring allo-tRNA. For example, the naturally occurring allo-tRNA can be modified to include a SerRS identity element, to have an anticodon that recognizes or hybridizes to a stop codon, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the variants include one more additional modifications that improve the tRNAs activity as a tRNA^(Sec), for example, to improve binding to a SelA, or improve binding to a EF-Tu.

Recombinant compositions and method of using tRNA^(Sec) are also provided. Exemplary tRNAs, isolated nucleic acids encoding the tRNAs, vectors thereof, and host cells expressing the tRNA are also provided. For example, an isolated nucleic acid can include a nucleic acid sequence encoding a tRNA^(Sec), wherein the tRNA^(Sec) is recognized by SerRS and by EF-Tu, or variants thereof, and when aminoacylated with serine the Ser-tRNA is a substrate for SelA or a variant thereof.

Consensus sequences for allo-tRNAs and exemplary naturally and non-naturally occurring allo-tRNA include RNA sequences (and DNA sequence encoding them) of SEQ ID NOS:19-42, 57, 58, 137-146.

Also provided are non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) that are chimeric tRNAs including sequence elements from a yeast tRNA, for example tRNA^(Sec), in combination with elements from a non-yeast tRNA. Typically, the tRNA^(Sec) can be a substrate for a SerRS (e.g., yeast SerRS), the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be substrate for SelA (e.g., Aeromonas SelA) and the Sec-tRNA^(Sec) can bind to eEF1α (see, e.g., FIG. 19). In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) include elements, for example, the tRNA acceptor branch alone or in combination with other elements (e.g., identity elements), from, for example, Aeromonas salmonicida (e.g., Aeromonas salmonicida tRNA^(Sec)) In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) has a sequence or is encoded by a sequence with at least 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 97, 98, 99%, or 100% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:151-158.

In some embodiments, the isolated nucleic acid includes a heterologous expression control sequence for expression of the tRNA. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid encoding the tRNA is in an expression vector. Host cells including the nucleic acid encoding the tRNA are also provided. The host cell can be, for example, a prokaryote, archaeon, or eukaryote. The nucleic acid is incorporated into the genome of the cell or expressed episomally. The host cell can be a genetically recoded organism.

Methods of manufacturing selenocysteine containing polypeptides are also disclosed. The tRNA^(Sec) can be used for recombinant manufacture of selenocysteine containing polypeptides encoded by mRNA without the requirement of an SECIS element. In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is co-expressed in a recombinant expression system, such as E. coli, or yeast, with a SerRS, an EF-Tu or an eEF1α, a SelD, a SelA, or a PSTK and a SepSecS, or a combination of SelA, PSTK and SepSecS, and an mRNA with at least one codon that recognizes the anticodon of the tRNA^(Sec) to manufacture a selenocyteine containing polypeptide encoded by the mRNA. In some embodiments, one or more components of the translation system is endogenous to the host cell. In some embodiments, one or more components of the translation system is exogenous or heterologous to the host cell.

Nucleic acids encoding selenocysteine containing polypeptides are also disclosed. The nucleic acids encode a polypeptide of interest and include a non-natural tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon, for example a “stop” codon that hybridizes with the anticodon of the tRNA^(Sec), such that a selenocysteine is transferred onto the growing polypeptide chain during translation. The selenocysteine containing polypeptides can be polypeptides that contain selenocysteine in nature, or polypeptides that do not contain selenocysteine in nature. For example, a non-naturally occurring tRNA recognition codon can be substituted for a cysteine codon in the naturally occurring mRNA, which changes the cysteine to a selenocysteine when the nucleic acid encoding the polypeptide is expressed recombinantly with the tRNA^(Sec). Substituting one or more naturally occurring Cys residues with a Sec can increase activity, lower dosage, reduce toxicity, improve stability, increase efficacy, increase half-life or combinations thereof of a selenocysteine containing protein relative to its cysteine containing counterpart.

Methods of treating subjects in need thereof with recombinant selenocysteine containing polypeptides prepared using the disclosed compositions and methods are also disclosed. Particularly preferred proteins containing selenocysteine include antibodies and enzymes having altered binding affinity and/or pharmacokinetics.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B are illustrations showing the translation apparatus. The canonical amino acids are charged onto their respective tRNA by their cognate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. The aminoacyl-tRNA is then delivered by EF-Tu to the ribosome (FIG. 1A). In contrast, the Sec pathway requires several biosynthetic steps. First, tRNA^(Sec) is misacylated to Ser-tRNA^(Sec) by SerRS. While in bacteria Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is directly converted by SelA to Sec-tRNA^(Sec), archaea and eukaryotes employ an additional phosphorylation step by PSTK to form Sep-tRNA^(Sec), which is then converted by SepSecS to the final product Sec-tRNA^(Sec) (FIG. 1B). Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is bound by elongation factor SelB and delivered to the ribosome. However, reassignment of the opal codon UGA to a Sec codon is only achieved if SelB also binds to the mRNA SECIS hairpin structure.

FIG. 2 is a depiction of the primary and secondary structures of human tRNA^(Sec) (SEQ ID NO:3) adapted from Yuan, et al., FEBS Lett., 584(2):342-349 (2010).

FIGS. 3A-3C are depictions of the primary and secondary structures of E. coli tRNA^(Sec) (SEQ ID NO:1) (3A), a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(UTu) with an E. coli body (tRNA^(UTu) _(op), SEQ ID NO:6; tRNA^(Utu) _(am), SEQ ID NO:7) (3B), and E. coli tRNA^(Ser) (SEQ ID NO:4) (3C). E. coli tRNA^(Ser) (3C) serves as a major scaffold for tRNA^(UTu) (3B) with the exception of the acceptor stem that originates from E. coli tRNA^(Sec) (boxed sequence elements). Major EF-Tu recognition elements were retained from tRNA^(Ser) as well (circled sequence elements). Substitution of the amber anti-codon CUA (tRNA^(UTu) _(am)) for the opal anti-codon UCA (tRNA^(UTu) _(op)) are depicted with arrows and labeling.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are depictions of the primary and secondary structures of a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(UTu) with a body derived from M. maripaludis (FIG. 4A, tRNA^(Utu) _(UCA), SEQ ID NO:16; tRNA^(UTu) _(op), SEQ ID NO:13; tRNA^(Utu) _(am), SEQ ID NO:14) and a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(UTu) with a body derived from E. coli (FIG. 4B, tRNA^(Utu) _(UCA), SEQ ID NO:12; tRNA^(UTu) _(op), SEQ ID NO:9; tRNA^(Utu) _(am), SEQ ID NO:10). Transplanted PSTK identity elements are boxed. “<” identifies potential locations of additional base pairs in the acceptor stem. “Arrow” identifies the location of other possible mutations. Specifically, the <depict one possible insertion of a G-C base pair between the 1 and 2^(nd) base pair and a second possible insertion of a G-C pair insertion between the 6^(th) and 7′ base pair of the acceptor stem. The arrows depict a possible change in the 50:64 base pair (A-U) to a U-A pair, and substitution of the serine anticodon (UGA) with opal (UCA) or amber (CUA) anticodon.

FIG. 5 is a depiction of the primary and secondary structures of a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(UTuX) (SEQ ID NO:17). Nucleotides that were changed from the original tRNA^(UTu) (SEQ ID NO:7) are circled and the amber anticodon is boxed. Specific mutations introduced between tRNA^(UTu) and tRNA^(UTu) include U8G, G9U, and A27G in the core region; A14U and G15C in the D-arm; deletion of U21 in the D-loop; A52G and U62C in the T-arm; A59C in the T-loop; and the insertion of residues U44 and G48 in the variable arm.

FIGS. 6A-6F are depictions of consensus primary and secondary structures of (8/4) allo-tRNA (bacteria) (SEQ ID NO:19) (6A), (9/3) allo-tRNA (bacteria) (SEQ ID NO:20) (6B), and consensus primary and secondary structures of minor serine/histidine/cysteine/selenocysteine tRNA species (8/4) SelC* tRNA^(Cys) (delta-proteobacteria) (SEQ ID NO:43) (6C), (8/4) tRNAs^(Ser) (bacteria) (SEQ ID NO:21) (6D), (8/4) tRNAs^(His) (α-proteobacteria bacteria) (SEQ ID NO:44) (6E), (8/4) tRNAs^(Sec) (bacteria) (SEQ ID NO:45) (6F). The (8/4) tRNAsSer with Y20 are also classified as (8/4) allo-tRNA.

FIGS. 7A-7E are primary and secondary structures of tRNA. FIGS. 7A and 7B show missense suppressor allo-tRNAs with Ser identity and Leu anticodons: tRNA (8/4-1) (SEQ ID NO:46) (7A) and tRNA (9/3-1) (SEQ ID NO:47) (7B). FIGS. 7C-7E show amber suppressor variants of three allo-tRNA species tRNA (8/4-2) (SEQ ID NO:48) (7C), tRNA (9/3-2) (SEQ ID NO:49) (7D), and tRNA (9/3-3) (SEQ ID NO:50) (7E). Their presumed amino-acid identities are indicated. FIG. 7F is images of the results of an amber suppression experiment in E. coli DH10B using sfGFP as reporter. The amino acids incorporated into sfGFP in response to the amber codon at position 2 by allo-tRNAs are shown. FIG. 7G is images of the results of an assay testing suppression of Ser146TAG CAT by allo-tRNAs in E. coli. Pre-cultured cells were spotted onto LB agar plates with various Cm concentrations (0, 34, 100 pg/mL). The plates were incubated overnight at 37° C.

FIG. 8A is an illustration of the cloverleaf “junction” of tRNA. FIG. 8B illustrates different junction structures of six amber suppressor variants of six allo-tRNA_(UAU) species. FIGS. 8C-8H are primary and secondary structures of the six allo-tRNA_(UAU) variants: tRNA (8/4-3) (SEQ ID NO:51) (8C), tRNA (8/4-4) (SEQ ID NO:52) (8D), tRNA (8/4-5) (SEQ ID NO:53) (8E), tRNA (8/4-6) (SEQ ID NO:54) (8F), tRNA (8/4-7) (SEQ ID NO:55) (8G), tRNA (8/4-8) (SEQ ID NO:56) (8H). FIG. 8I is an image of the results of an assay measuring suppression of Ser146TAG CAT by allo-tRNA_(CUA) variants with different junction structures. Amber suppressor variants of 8/4-1, 9/3-1 and 9/3-2 were used as positive controls. Fresh cultures of the transformants were spotted onto an agar plate with Cm at a concentration of 34 μg/mL. The plates were incubated overnight at 37° C.

FIG. 9A is the primary and secondary structures of SupD tRNA^(Ser) (SEQ ID NO:136) (left) and “allo-tRNA^(UTu)” (SEQ ID NO:57) (right). FIG. 9B is a map of the pSecUAG-A plasmid used for Sec insertion in E. coli. FIGS. 9C-9E are series of images showing the results of an assay designed to test Sec insertion. Formate dehydrogenase H (FDH_(H)) encoded by the E. coli fdhF gene has a catalytic Sec residue and four Cys residues accommodating an iron sulfur cluster (Fe₄S₄). The images in FIG. 9C show FDH_(H) expression in E. coli ΔselABC ΔfdhF (ME6) cells with allo-tRNA^(UTu), with or without Aeromonas salmonicida (As) SelA, and with fdhF gene variants having UAG mutations at codon positions 8, 11, 15, 42, and 140. “Am” indicates the amber UAG codon. FDH_(H) reduces benzyl viologen into a purple dye. The images in FIG. 9D show FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells with either of the allo-tRNA^(UTu)-As SelA pair and the tRNA^(SecUx)-Ec SelA pair and with fdhF gene variants having two to four UAG codons. Ec selA′ in the pSecUx-A plasmid map indicates that the AUG start codon was changed to GUG with a short insertion “UAAUU” in front of it. The images in FIG. 9E show FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells carrying either pSecUAG-A or pSecUAG-AD and carrying fdhF gene variants having four or five UAG codons. As selD′ in the pSecUAG-AD plasmid map indicates that the AUG start codon was changed to GUG. FIG. 9F is a spectrograph showing the results of intact mass spectrometry of the human GPx1(Ser49 and Sec49) mixture obtained from ME6 cells carrying pSecUAG-AD. Three exposed Cys residues of GPx1 were modified by 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) during purification. The calculated masses are 23,361 Da for GPx1(Ser49) with three 2-ME molecules and 23,421 Da for GPx1(Sec49) with three 2-ME molecules. FIG. 9G is a spectrograph showing the intact mass spectrometry of the human GPx1(Ser49 and Sec49) mixture obtained from ME6 cells carrying pSecUAG-ADT. Dithiothreitol (DTT) was used as the reducing agent. The calculated masses are 23,133 Da for GPx1(Ser49) and 23,193 Da for GPx1(Sec49). FIG. 9H is a diagram illustrating putative pathways of selenium transfer to As SelA in engineered E. coli carrying pSecUAG-ADT.

FIG. 10A is an illustration showing the development of the D-3b variant based on wildtype (UCUAUCUGGUGAUAGA (SEQ ID NO:59)) of allo-tRNA^(UTu). FIG. 10B is genetic map showing the development the pSecUAG-AD3T system. FIG. 10C is a spectrograph showing the results of intact mass spectrometry of the human GPx1(Ser49 and Sec49) mixture obtained from ME6 cells carrying pSecUAG-AD3T. Dithiothreitol (DTT) was used as the reducing agent. The calculated masses are 23,133 Da for GPx1(Ser49) and 23,193 Da for GPx1(Sec49).

FIGS. 11A and 11B are genetic maps illustrating the cloning of the E. coli selA gene into the plasmids carrying the tRNA genes. In order to reduce the SelA expression level, the AUG start codon was changed to GUG and UUG, and a short nucleotide sequence was inserted between the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence and the start codon. In wildtype E. coli, SelB binds to the SECIS-like element in the selAB mRNA for autorepression (UUAAACGCCCUUCUCCGUGUGAGAGGGCCUUGAUCAGCCAGGUUUCCUAUG(SEQ ID NO:60). However, ME6 strain lacks SelB and has no such regulation. FIG. 11C is a series of images showing FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells expressing either tRNA^(SecUx) or tRNA^(UTu) and carrying the fdhF gene variants having one or two UAG codons. The E. coli selA gene variant that has the 5-nt insertion plus the GUG start codon produced the most suitable concentration of E. coli SelA molecules for both tRNA species.

FIG. 12A is a genetic map of the pTrc99A plasmid. FIG. 12B is a series of images showing the effects of additional expressions of As SelA and Trypanosoma brucei (Tb) and Homo sapiens (Hs) PSTK species from the pTrc99A plasmid. IPTG was added at a two different concentrations to induce these enzymes from the trc promoter. FDH_(H) expression in E. coli ΔseABC ΔfdhF (ME6) cells carrying pSecUAG-A plus one of the pTrc99A plasmids and the fdhF gene variant having mutations at codon positions 8, 11, and 140. FIG. 12C is a series of images showing FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells expressing allo-tRNA^(UTu) and carrying one of the pTrc99A plasmids and the fdhF gene variant having a mutation at codon position 140. The SepCysS species is derived from Parcubacteria bacterium DG_74_2 bin and was cloned after the PSTK sequences in a dicistonic manner.

FIG. 13A is a series of images showing FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells carrying either pSecUAG-A, pSecUAG-A+AsselD, or pSecUAG-AD and carrying fdhF gene variants having four or five UAG codons. As selD indicates the wildtype gene carrying the AUG start codon. FIG. 13B is series of images showing a repeated comparison of pSecUAG-A and pSecUAG-A+AsselD. FIG. 13C is a series of images showing FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells carrying pSecUAG-AD and carrying fdhF gene variants.

FIGS. 14A-14F is a series of images showing intact mass spectrometry of the human GPx1(Ser49 and Sec49) mixture obtained from ME6 cells carrying either of pSecUAG-AD (14A and 14B), pSecUAG-ADT (14C and 14D), and pSecUAG-AD3T (14E and 14F). Dithiothreitol (DTT) was used as the reducing agent. Possible peaks for oxidized GPx1 proteins are indicated with “+O?” (for one site) and “+2O?” (for two sites). Another minor peak (indicated by ?) is a putative formic acid adduct of GPx1.

FIG. 15A (SEQ ID NO:57) and 15B (SEQ ID NO:58) are illustrations showing the primary and secondary structure of engineered allo-tRNA^(UTu) variants. A part of Aeromonas tRNA^(Sec) structure was transplanted to allo-tRNA^(UTu). Another allo-tRNA was changed to allo-tRNA^(UTu2) by introducing mutations. FIG. 15C is a series of images showing the results of an assay testing FDH_(H) expression in ME6 cells expressing As SelD, As SelA and allo-tRNA^(UTu) variants and carrying the fdhF gene variant having five UAG codons. As SelA was expressed from a low-copy-number plasmid vector using the wildtype AUG start codon or an alternative GUG start codon as indicated. Only the positive control plasmid pSecUAG-AD has additional As SelA expression cassette on this high-copy-number plasmid vector. After the incubation in an anaerobic tent for the dye formation, the agar plate was exposed to the air on the lab bench for dye oxidation and bleaching. The cell spot carrying the D-3b variant and pMW-AsSelA(AUG) remained dark for the longest time under oxygen exposure. FIG. 15D is a series of images showing the results of repeating the same experiment as the 14C with the G21 variant. FIG. 15E is a bar graphs showing Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities of GPx1 produced with allo-tRNA^(UTu1D) and allo-tRNA^(UT2D) in ME6 cells at 25° C. Each bar represents the average of three independent experiments using different E. coli colonies. FIG. 15F is a series of images showing the results of an assay testing gFDH_(H) expression in ME68z cells at 25° C. As SelA was expressed with a strong promoter (++++) or a weak promoter (+). Allo-tRNAsUTu were expressed with the indicated promoters (PargW>PselC).

FIGS. 16A and 16B are series of images showing the results of assays testing Sec insertion suing three SelA species and seven allo-tRNA variants. Sh, As, Rx denote Sulfurimonas honglongensis, Aeromonas salmonicida, Rubrobacter xylanophilus, respectively. 2225, 2459, S15 were derived from 9/3-1, 9/3-2, 8/4-1, respectively. FIG. 16A shows all of the combinations of allo-tRNA and SelA inserted Sec (from the same agar plate). The fdhF(140Amb) gene variant was used as reporter. FIG. 16B shows the two allo-tRNA^(UTu) species derived from (9/3-1 and 9/3-2) were more active than the five allo-tRNA^(UTu) species derived from (8/4-1) (from the same agar plate). As SelA was used. The fdhF(3 UAG codons) gene variant was used as reporter.

FIG. 17A is an illustration showing A. aeolicus SelA complexed with tRNA^(Sec). Abbreviations: Aa stands for Aquifex aeolicus; Ec for Escherichia coli; Mt for Moorella thermoacetica; Db for Desulfococcus biacutus; As for A. salmonicida; Psp. for Psychromonas sp. CNPT3; Pp for Photobacterium profundum; Pd for Photobacterium damselae; Td for Treponema denticola; Rx for Rubrobacter xylanophilus. FIG. 17B is a gene/protein diagram of NMC-A and series of images showing the results of a screen for highly active As SelA variants by an NMC-A β-lactamase reporter assay in E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB. Serial dilutions of cells expressing wildtype or mutant SelA were spotted on ampicillin-containing agar plates and incubated at 30° C. FIG. 17C is a series of images showing FDH_(H) expression at 30° C. in ME6fdhF(5 UAG codons) cells with pSecUAG-D-allo-tRNA^(UTu1D) and pMWcat-AsSelA-(GUG) expressing wildtype or mutant SelA. Sodium selenite was added to a final concentration of 5 μM. FIG. 17D is a series of images showing FDH_(H) expression level in ME68z fdhF (5 UAG codons and ΔSECIS) cells at 37° C. was highest when both allo-tRNA^(UTu2D) and SelA^(Evol) were expressed at a moderate level (arabinose (ara) 0.01% and “++”, respectively).

FIG. 18A is mass spectragram of protein by using pSecUAG-Evol2. Sec incorporation is estimated to be 84%. The peak of 23237.601 might derive from GPx1(Sec49) with a Cys-to-Sec substitution at any of the five Cys positions. FIG. 18B is a bar graph showing Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities of GPx1 produced with SelA^(Evol) variants. Each bar represents the average of three independent experiments using different E. coli colonies.

FIG. 19 is a cartoon illustrating the Sec pathway engineered in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Sc=Saccaromyces cerevisiae; As=Aeromonas salmonicida.

FIG. 20A-20F are primary and secondary structures of Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. Pectinolytica 34mel tRNA (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016)) (20A, SEQ ID NO:148)), SctRNA^(Ser) (20B, SEQ ID NO:150)), and SctRNA^(Sec) (20C, SEQ ID NO:152)), SctRNA^(Sec)-2 (2D, SEQ ID NO:154)), SctRNA^(Sec)-3 (2E, SEQ ID NO:156)), SctRNA^(Sec)-4 (2F, SEQ ID NO:158)).

FIGS. 21A and 21B is a diagram (21A) and a structural model (21B) of a Gal4 reporter for selenocysteine incorporation.

FIG. 22 is a series of images from an assay showing Ser incorporation at Cys positions in Gal4 does not permit growth on media lacking uracil.

FIG. 23A is a series of images from an assay showing Sec insertion into gal4-C11Am is required for growth on media lacking uracil. FIG. 23B is a series of images from an assay showing suppression of gal4-C21Am. FIG. 23C is a series of images from an assay showing suppression of gal4-C11Am/C21Am by tRNA^(Sec)-3. FIG. 23D is a series of images showing important components for Sec biosynthesis and translation in a yeast system.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Definitions

Transfer RNA or tRNA refers to a set of genetically encoded RNAs that act during protein synthesis as adaptor molecules, matching individual amino acids to their corresponding codon on a messenger RNA (mRNA). In higher eukaryotes such as mammals, there is at least one tRNA for each of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids. In eukaryotes, including mammals, tRNAs are encoded by families of genes that are 73 to 150 base pairs long. tRNAs assume a secondary structure with four base paired stems known as the cloverleaf structure. The tRNA contains a stem and an anticodon. The anticodon is complementary to the codon specifying the tRNA's corresponding amino acid. The anticodon is in the loop that is opposite of the stem containing the terminal nucleotides. The 3′ end of a tRNA is aminoacylated by a tRNA synthetase so that an amino acid is attached to the 3′end of the tRNA. This amino acid is delivered to a growing polypeptide chain as the anticodon sequence of the tRNA reads a codon triplet in an mRNA.

As used herein “suppressor tRNA” refers to a tRNA that alters the reading of a messenger RNA (mRNA) in a given translation system. For example, a suppressor tRNA can read through a stop codon.

As used herein, an “anticodon” refers to a unit made up of any combination of 2, 3, 4, and 5 bases (G or A or U or C), typically three nucleotides, that correspond to the three bases of a codon on an mRNA. Each tRNA contains a specific anticodon triplet sequence that can base-pair to one or more codons for an amino acid or “stop codon.” Known “stop codons” include, but are not limited to, the three codon bases, UAA known as ochre, UAG known as amber and UGA known as opal, that do not code for an amino acid but act as signals for the termination of protein synthesis. tRNAs do not decode stop codons naturally, but can and have been engineered to do so. Stop codons are usually recognized by enzymes (release factors) that cleave the polypeptide as opposed to encode an AA via a tRNA. Generally the anticodon loop consists of seven nucleotides. In the 5′ to 3′ direction the first two positions 32 and 33 precede the anticodon positions 34 to 36 followed by two nucleotides in positions 37 and 38 (Alberts, B., et al. in The Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4^(th) ed, Garland Science, New York, N.Y. (2002)). The size and nucleotide composition of the anticodon is generally the same as the size of the codon with complementary nucleotide composition. A four base pair codon consists of four bases such as 5′-AUGC-3′ and an anticodon for such a codon would complement the codon such that the tRNA contained 5′-GCAU-3′ with the anticodon starting at position 34 of the tRNA. A 5 base codon 5′-CGGUA-3′ codon is recognized by the 5′-UACCG-3′ anticodon (Hohsaka T., et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 29:3646-3651 (2001)). The composition of any such anticodon for 2 (16=any possible combination of 4 nucleotides), 3 (64), 4 (256), and 5 (1024) base codons would follow the same logical composition. The “anticodon” typically starts at position 34 of a canonical tRNA, but may also reside in any position of the “anti-codon stem-loop” such that the resulting tRNA is complementary to the “stop codon” of equivalent and complementary base composition.

As used herein, “tRNA^(Sec)” refers to an unaminoacylated tRNA suitable for carrying selenocysteine. Typically the anticodon sequence of the tRNA^(Sec) can recognize or hybridize with an mRNA codon specific for, or designed to encode, a selenocysteine amino acid, for example UGA. In E. coli, the endogenous tRNA^(Sec) is encoded by the selC gene.

As used herein, “tRNA^(Ser)” refers to an unaminoacylated tRNA suitable for carrying serine. Typically the anticodon sequence of the tRNA^(Ser) can recognize or hybridize with an mRNA codon specific for, or designed to encode, a serine amino acid, for example UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU, or AGC.

As used herein, “tRNA^(UTu)” refers to a non-naturally occurring, unaminoacylated tRNA^(Sec) suitable for carrying selenocysteine. Typically the anticodon sequence of the tRNA^(UTu) can recognize or hybridize with an mRNA codon specific for, or designed to encode, a selenocysteine amino acid.

As used herein, “Sec-tRNA^(Sec)”, refers to aminoacylated tRNA^(Sec) carrying a selenocysteine amino acid.

As used herein, “Ser-tRNA^(Sec)”, refers to aminoacylated tRNA^(Sec) carrying a serine amino acid.

As used herein, “Ser-tRNA^(Ser)” refers to aminoacylated tRNA^(Ser) carrying a serine amino acid.

As used herein, “Sep-tRNA^(Ser)” refers to a phosphorylated Ser-tRNA^(Sec).

As used herein, “EF-Tu” refers to Elongation Factor Thermo Unstable, a prokaryotic elongation factor mediates the entry of the aminoacyl-tRNA into a free site of the ribosome.

As used herein, “SerRS” refers to Seryl-tRNA synthetase (also known as Serine—tRNA ligase) which is a prokaryotic factor that catalyzes the attachment of serine to tRNA^(Ser).

As used herein “SECIS” refers to a SElenoCysteine Insertion Sequence, is an RNA element around 60 nucleotides in length that adopts a stem-loop structure which directs the cell to translate UGA codons as selenocysteines. In bacteria the SECIS can be soon after the UGA codon it affects, while in archaea and eukaryotes, it can be in the 3′ or 5′ UTR of an mRNA, and can cause multiple UGA codons within the mRNA to code for selenocysteine.

As used herein “SelA” refers to selenocysteine synthase, a prokaryotic pyridoxal 5-phosphate-containing enzyme which catalyzes the conversion of Ser-tRNA^(Sec) into a Sec-tRNA^(Sec).

As used herein “SeB” refers to selenocysteine-specific elongation factor, a prokaryotic elongation factor for delivery of Sec-tRNA^(Sec) to the ribosome.

As used herein “PSTK” refers to phosphoseryl-tRNA kinase (also known as O-phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Sec) kinase and L-seryl-tRNA^(Sec) kinase), a kinase that phosphorylates Ser-tRNA^(Sec) to O-phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Sec), an activated intermediate for selenocysteine biosynthesis.

As used herein “SepSecS” refers to Sep (O-phosphoserine) tRNA:Sec (selenocysteine) tRNA synthase (also known as O-phosphoseryl-tRNA(Sec) selenium transferase and Sep-tRNA:Sec-tRNA synthase), an eukaryotic and archaeal enzyme that converts O-phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Sec) to selenocysteinyl-tRNA^(Sec) in the presence of a selenium donor.

As used herein “SepCysS” refers to Sep-tRNA:Cys-tRNA synthase, an archaeal/bacterial enzyme that converts O-phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Cys) (Sep-tRNA^(Cys)) into Cys-tRNA^(Cys) in the presence of a sulfur donor.

As used herein “G-C content” (or guanine-cytosine content) refers to the percentage of nitrogenous bases on a nucleic acid molecule, or fragment, section, or region thereof, that are either guanine or cytosine.

Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases (“AARS”) are enzymes that charge (acylate) tRNAs with amino acids. These charged aminoacyl-tRNAs then participate in mRNA translation and protein synthesis. The AARS show high specificity for charging a specific tRNA with the appropriate amino acid, for example, tRNA^(Val)with valine by valyl-tRNA synthetase or tRNA^(TrP) with tryptophan by tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase. In general, there is at least one AARS for each of the twenty amino acids.

As used herein “translation system” refers to the components necessary to incorporate a naturally occurring amino acid into a growing polypeptide chain (protein). Components of a translation system can include, e.g., ribosomes, tRNAs, synthetases, mRNA and the like. The components described herein can be added to a translation system, in vivo or in vitro. A translation system can be either prokaryotic, e.g., an E. coli cell, or eukaryotic, e.g., a yeast, mammal, plant, or insect or cells thereof.

A “transgenic organism” as used herein, is any organism, in which one or more of the cells of the organism contains heterologous nucleic acid introduced by way of human intervention, such as by transgenic techniques well known in the art. The nucleic acid is introduced into the cell, directly or indirectly by introduction into a precursor of the cell, by way of deliberate genetic manipulation, such as by microinjection or by infection with a recombinant virus. Suitable transgenic organisms include, but are not limited to, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, plants and animals. The nucleic acids described herein can be introduced into the host by methods known in the art, for example infection, transfection, transformation or transconjugation. Techniques for transferring DNA into such organisms are widely known and provided in references such as Sambrook, et al. (2000) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3^(rd) ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Plainview N.Y.

As used herein, the term “eukaryote” or “eukaryotic” refers to organisms or cells or tissues derived therefrom belonging to the phylogenetic domain Eukarya such as animals (e.g., mammals, insects, reptiles, and birds), ciliates, plants (e.g., monocots, dicots, and algae), fungi, yeasts, flagellates, microsporidia, and protists.

As used herein, the term “non-eukaryotic organism” refers to organisms including, but not limited to, organisms of the Eubacteria phylogenetic domain, such as Escherichia coli, Thermus thermophilus, and Bacillus stearothermophilus, or organisms of the Archaea phylogenetic domain such as, Methanocaldococcus jannaschii, Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus, Halobacterium such as Haloferax volcanii and Halobacterium species NRC-1, Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Pyrococcus furiosus, Pyrococcus horikoshii, and Aeuropyrum pernix.

The term “construct” refers to a recombinant genetic molecule having one or more isolated polynucleotide sequences. Genetic constructs used for transgene expression in a host organism include in the 5′-3′ direction, a promoter sequence; a sequence encoding a gene of interest; and a termination sequence. The construct may also include selectable marker gene(s) and other regulatory elements for expression.

The term “gene” refers to a DNA sequence that encodes through its template or messenger RNA a sequence of amino acids characteristic of a specific peptide, polypeptide, or protein. The term “gene” also refers to a DNA sequence that encodes an RNA product. The term gene as used herein with reference to genomic DNA includes intervening, non-coding regions as well as regulatory regions and can include 5′ and 3′ ends.

The term “orthologous genes” or “orthologs” refer to genes that have a similar nucleic acid sequence because they were separated by a speculation event.

The term polypeptide includes proteins and fragments thereof. The polypeptides can be “exogenous,” meaning that they are “heterologous,” i.e., foreign to the host cell being utilized, such as human polypeptide produced by a bacterial cell. Polypeptides are disclosed herein as amino acid residue sequences. Those sequences are written left to right in the direction from the amino to the carboxy terminus. In accordance with standard nomenclature, amino acid residue sequences are denominated by either a three letter or a single letter code as indicated as follows: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic Acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glutamic Acid (Glu, E), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (Lys, K), Methionine (Met, M), Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Proline (Pro, P), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T), Tryptophan (Trp, W), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), and Valine (Val, V).

“Cofactor”, as used herein, refers to a substance, such as a metallic ion or a coenzyme that must be associated with an enzyme for the enzyme to function. Cofactors work by changing the shape of an enzyme or by actually participating in the enzymatic reaction.

“Variant” refers to a polypeptide or polynucleotide that differs from a reference polypeptide or polynucleotide, but retains essential properties. A typical variant of a polypeptide differs in amino acid sequence from another, reference polypeptide. Generally, differences are limited so that the sequences of the reference polypeptide and the variant are closely similar overall and, in many regions, identical. A variant and reference polypeptide may differ in amino acid sequence by one or more modifications (e.g., substitutions, additions, and/or deletions). A substituted or inserted amino acid residue may or may not be one encoded by the genetic code. A variant of a polypeptide may be naturally occurring such as an allelic variant, or it may be a variant that is not known to occur naturally.

Modifications and changes can be made in the structure of the polypeptides of in disclosure and still obtain a molecule having similar characteristics as the polypeptide (e.g., a conservative amino acid substitution). For example, certain amino acids can be substituted for other amino acids in a sequence without appreciable loss of activity. Because it is the interactive capacity and nature of a polypeptide that defines that polypeptide's biological functional activity, certain amino acid sequence substitutions can be made in a polypeptide sequence and nevertheless obtain a polypeptide with like properties.

In making such changes, the hydropathic index of amino acids can be considered. The importance of the hydropathic amino acid index in conferring interactive biologic function on a polypeptide is generally understood in the art. It is known that certain amino acids can be substituted for other amino acids having a similar hydropathic index or score and still result in a polypeptide with similar biological activity. Each amino acid has been assigned a hydropathic index on the basis of its hydrophobicity and charge characteristics. Those indices are: isoleucine (+4.5); valine (+4.2); leucine (+3.8); phenylalanine (+2.8); cysteine/cystine (+2.5); methionine (+1.9); alanine (+1.8); glycine (−0.4); threonine (−0.7); serine (−0.8); tryptophan (−0.9); tyrosine (−1.3); proline (−1.6); histidine (−3.2); glutamate (−3.5); glutamine (−3.5); aspartate (−3.5); asparagine (−3.5); lysine (−3.9); and arginine (−4.5).

It is believed that the relative hydropathic character of the amino acid determines the secondary structure of the resultant polypeptide, which in turn defines the interaction of the polypeptide with other molecules, such as enzymes, substrates, receptors, antibodies, antigens, and cofactors. It is known in the art that an amino acid can be substituted by another amino acid having a similar hydropathic index and still obtain a functionally equivalent polypeptide. In such changes, the substitution of amino acids whose hydropathic indices are within ±2 is preferred, those within ±1 are particularly preferred, and those within ±0.5 are even more particularly preferred.

Substitution of like amino acids can also be made on the basis of hydrophilicity, particularly where the biological functional equivalent polypeptide or peptide thereby created is intended for use in immunological embodiments. The following hydrophilicity values have been assigned to amino acid residues: arginine (+3.0); lysine (+3.0); aspartate (+3.0±1); glutamate (+3.0±1); serine (+0.3); asparagine (+0.2); glutamine (+0.2); glycine (0); proline (−0.5±1); threonine (−0.4); alanine (−0.5); histidine (−0.5); cysteine (−1.0); methionine (−1.3); valine (−1.5); leucine (−1.8); isoleucine (−1.8); tyrosine (−2.3); phenylalanine (−2.5); tryptophan (−3.4). It is understood that an amino acid can be substituted for another having a similar hydrophilicity value and still obtain a biologically equivalent, and in particular, an immunologically equivalent polypeptide. In such changes, the substitution of amino acids whose hydrophilicity values are within ±2 is preferred, those within ±1 are particularly preferred, and those within ±0.5 are even more particularly preferred.

As outlined above, amino acid substitutions are generally based on the relative similarity of the amino acid side-chain substituents, for example, their hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, charge, size, and the like. Exemplary substitutions that take various of the foregoing characteristics into consideration are well known to those of skill in the art and include (original residue: exemplary substitution): (Ala: Gly, Ser), (Arg: Lys), (Asn: Gln, His), (Asp: Glu, Cys, Ser), (Gln: Asn), (Glu: Asp), (Gly: Ala), (His: Asn, Gln), (Ile: Leu, Val), (Leu: Ile, Val), (Lys: Arg), (Met: Leu, Tyr), (Ser: Thr), (Thr: Ser), (Tip: Tyr), (Tyr: Trp, Phe), and (Val: Ile, Leu). Embodiments of this disclosure thus contemplate functional or biological equivalents of a polypeptide as set forth above. In particular, embodiments of the polypeptides can include variants having about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more sequence identity to the polypeptide of interest.

The term “isolated” is meant to describe a compound of interest (e.g., nucleic acids) that is in an environment different from that in which the compound naturally occurs, e.g., separated from its natural milieu such as by concentrating a peptide to a concentration at which it is not found in nature. “Isolated” is meant to include compounds that are within samples that are substantially enriched for the compound of interest and/or in which the compound of interest is partially or substantially purified. Isolated nucleic acids are at least 60% free, preferably 75% free, and most preferably 90% free from other associated components.

The term “vector” refers to a replicon, such as a plasmid, phage, or cosmid, into which another DNA segment may be inserted so as to bring about the replication of the inserted segment. The vectors can be expression vectors.

The term “expression vector” refers to a vector that includes one or more expression control sequences

The term “expression control sequence” refers to a DNA sequence that controls and regulates the transcription and/or translation of another DNA sequence. Control sequences that are suitable for prokaryotes, for example, include a promoter, optionally an operator sequence, a ribosome binding site, and the like. Eukaryotic cells are known to utilize promoters, polyadenylation signals, and enhancers.

“Transformed,” “transgenic,” “transfected” and “recombinant” refer to a host organism such as a bacterium or a plant into which a heterologous nucleic acid molecule has been introduced. The nucleic acid molecule can be stably integrated into the genome of the host or the nucleic acid molecule can also be present as an extrachromosomal molecule. Such an extrachromosomal molecule can be auto-replicating. Transformed cells, tissues, or plants are understood to encompass not only the end product of a transformation process, but also transgenic progeny thereof. A “non-transformed,” “non-transgenic,” or “non-recombinant” host refers to a wild-type organism, e.g., a bacterium or plant, which does not contain the heterologous nucleic acid molecule.

The term “endogenous” with regard to a nucleic acid refers to nucleic acids normally present in the host.

The term “heterologous” refers to elements occurring where they are not normally found. For example, a promoter may be linked to a heterologous nucleic acid sequence, e.g., a sequence that is not normally found operably linked to the promoter. When used herein to describe a promoter element, heterologous means a promoter element that differs from that normally found in the native promoter, either in sequence, species, or number. For example, a heterologous control element in a promoter sequence may be a control/regulatory element of a different promoter added to enhance promoter control, or an additional control element of the same promoter. The term “heterologous” thus can also encompass “exogenous” and “non-native” elements.

The term “percent (%) sequence identity” is defined as the percentage of nucleotides or amino acids in a candidate sequence that are identical with the nucleotides or amino acids in a reference nucleic acid sequence, after aligning the sequences and introducing gaps, if necessary, to achieve the maximum percent sequence identity. Alignment for purposes of determining percent sequence identity can be achieved in various ways that are within the skill in the art, for instance, using publicly available computer software such as BLAST, BLAST-2, ALIGN, ALIGN-2 or Megalign (DNASTAR) software. Appropriate parameters for measuring alignment, including any algorithms needed to achieve maximal alignment over the full-length of the sequences being compared can be determined by known methods.

For purposes herein, the % sequence identity of a given nucleotides or amino acids sequence C to, with, or against a given nucleic acid sequence D (which can alternatively be phrased as a given sequence C that has or comprises a certain % sequence identity to, with, or against a given sequence D) is calculated as follows:

100 times the fraction W/Z,

where W is the number of nucleotides or amino acids scored as identical matches by the sequence alignment program in that program's alignment of C and D, and where Z is the total number of nucleotides or amino acids in D. It will be appreciated that where the length of sequence C is not equal to the length of sequence D, the % sequence identity of C to D will not equal the % sequence identity of D to C.

The term “stringent hybridization conditions” as used herein mean that hybridization will generally occur if there is at least 95% and preferably at least 97% sequence identity between the probe and the target sequence. Examples of stringent hybridization conditions are overnight incubation in a solution comprising 50% formamide, 5×SSC (150 mM NaCl, 15 mM trisodium citrate), 50 mM sodium phosphate (pH 7.6), 5×Denhardt's solution, 10% dextran sulfate, and 20 μg/ml denatured, sheared carrier DNA such as salmon sperm DNA, followed by washing the hybridization support in 0.1×SSC at approximately 65° C. Other hybridization and wash conditions are well known and are exemplified in Sambrook et al, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (2000).

As used herein, the term “low stringency” refers to conditions that permit a polynucleotide or polypeptide to bind to another substance with little or no sequence specificity.

As used herein, the term “purified” and like terms relate to the isolation of a molecule or compound in a form that is substantially free (at least 60% free, preferably 75% free, and most preferably 90% free) from other components normally associated with the molecule or compound in a native environment.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” encompasses any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers, such as a phosphate buffered saline solution, water and emulsions such as an oil/water or water/oil emulsion, and various types of wetting agents.

As used herein, the terms “recoded organism” and “genomically recoded organism (GRO)” in the context of codons refer to an organism in which the genetic code of the organism has been altered such that a codon has been eliminated from the genetic code by reassignment to a synonymous or nonsynonymous codon.

Unless otherwise indicated, the disclosure encompasses conventional techniques of molecular biology, microbiology, cell biology and recombinant DNA, which are within the skill of the art. See, e.g., Sambrook and Russell, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3rd edition (2001); Current Protocols In Molecular Biology [(F. M. Ausubel, et al. eds., (1987)]; Coligan, Dunn, Ploegh, Speicher and Wingfeld, eds. (1995) Current Protocols in Protein Science (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.); the series Methods in Enzymology (Academic Press, Inc.): PCR 2: A Practical Approach (M. J. MacPherson, B. D. Hames and G. R. Taylor eds. (1995)].

Unless otherwise noted, technical terms are used according to conventional usage. Definitions of common terms in molecular biology may be found in Lewin, Genes VII, published by Oxford University Press, 2000; Kendrew et al. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, published by Wiley-Interscience, 1999; and Robert A. Meyers (ed.), Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, a Comprehensive Desk Reference, published by VCH Publishers, Inc., 1995; Sambrook and Russell. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd. edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

II. Compositions

A. tRNA

tRNA^(Sec) suitable for carrying selenocysteine and facilitating synthesis of selenopeptides without requiring a SECIS in the mRNA encoding the peptide are disclosed. Also disclosed are aminoacylated tRNA^(Sec). Using the methods discussed in more detail below, the tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein are capable of being aminoacylated to form a Sec-tRNA^(Sec) which can facilitate insertion of selenocysteine into nascent polypeptide chains. Typically, the tRNA^(Sec) (1) can be recognized by SerRS and by EF-Tu, or variants thereof; and is characterized by one or more of the following elements: (2) when aminoacylated with serine the non-naturally occurring Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be converted to non-naturally occurring Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by SelA, or variant thereof; (3) when aminoacylated with serine the non-naturally occurring Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be phosphorylated by PSTK or variant thereof; (4) when aminoacylated with phosphorylated serine the non-naturally occurring Sep-tRNA^(Sec) can serve as a substrate for SepSecS or variant thereof; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1) and (2). In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1), (3), and (4). In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by elements (1), (2), (3), and (4). Typically, the non-naturally occurring Sec-tRNA^(Sec) can be bound by EF-Tu. The Sec can be incorporated into a growing peptide chain at a codon of the mRNA that recognizes the anticodon of the tRNA^(Sec). Preferably, EF-Tu does not bind Sep-tRNA^(Sec). In some embodiments, EF-Tu is less efficient at incorporating Ser-tRNA^(Sec) than Sec-tRNA^(Sec) into the growing peptide chain.

Typically, the tRNA^(Sec) do not require a SECIS element in an mRNA to be incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain during translation. Typically the anticodon of the tRNA^(Sec) is recognized or hybridizes to a stop codon. Typically the tRNA^(Sec) can facilitate incorporation of a Sec into a growing peptide chain without the activity of SelB.

Some consensus and exemplary tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein are provided as an RNA sequences, while others are provided as a DNA (e.g., the sequence encoding the tRNA^(Sec)). The RNA sequence is also an express disclosure of the corresponding DNA sequence wherein the “U” of the RNA are replaced with “T.” The DNA sequence is also an express disclosure of the corresponding RNA sequence wherein the “T” of the DNA are replaced with “U.”

1. Substrates for EF-Tu

EF-Tu is a prokaryotic elongation factor that mediates the entry of the aminoacyl-tRNA into a free site of the ribosome. Endogenous prokaryotic tRNAs, typically include an antideterminant element, which prevents recognition of a Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by the elongation factor EF-Tu. In some embodiments, the disclosed tRNA can be a substrate for EF-Tu. Therefore, in some embodiments, the disclosed tRNA is a variant of an endogenous tRNA^(Sec) that has been modified to inactivate the antideterminant element. The antideterminant element can be modified, mutated, or deleted so that tRNA is an acceptable substrate for EF-Tu. For example the antideterminant element in E. coli tRNA^(Sec) is located in the 8th, 9th and 10th bp in the acceptor branch of tRNA^(Sec) (encoded by selC), corresponding to the last base pair in the amino acid acceptor stem and the two first pairs in the T-stem (Rudinger, et al., EMBO J., 15(3):650-57 (1996), and can be referred to as C7•G66/G49•U65/C50•G64 according the numbering in Schon, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 17(18):7159-7165 (1989). Accordingly, in some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is variant of a naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) where the corresponding antideterminant sequence is mutated or deleted such that the tRNA^(Sec) is a substrate for EF-Tu.

2. Substrate for SelA

SelA refers to L-seryl-tRNA(Sec) selenium transferase, which converts seryl-tRNA^(Sec) to selenocysteinyl-tRNA^(Sec) during selenoprotein biosynthesis. SelA utilizes selenophosphate synthesized by selenophosphate synthase (SelD) as the selenium-donor molecule. In some embodiments, the disclosed tRNA^(Sec) can serve as a substrate SelA. E. coli ecodes a SelA, thus, in some embodiments, the SelA is E. coli SelA.

An exemplary protein sequence for E. coli SelA is:

(SEQ ID NO: 77) MTTETRFLYSQLPAIDRLLRDSSFLSLRDTYGHTRVVELLRQMLDEAREV IRGSQTLPAWCENWAQEVDARLTKEAQSALRPVINLTGTVLHTNLGRALQ AEAAVEAVAQAMRSPVTLEYDLDDAGRGHRDRALAQLLCRITGAEDACIV NNNAAAVLLMLAATASGKEVVVSRGELVEIGGAFRIPDVMRQAGCTLHEV GTTNRTHANDYRQAVNENTALLMKVHTSNYSIQGFTKAIDEAELVALGKE LDVPVVTDLGSGSLVDLSQYGLPKEPMPQELIAAGVSLVSFSGDKLLGGP QAGIIVGKKEMIARLQSHPLKRALRADKMTLAALEATLRLYLHPEALSEK LPTLRLLTRSAEVIQIQAQRLQAPLAAHYGAEFAVQVMPCLSQIGSGSLP VDRLPSAALTFTPHDGRGSHLESLAARWRELPVPVIGRIYDGRLWLDLRC LEDEQRFLEMLLK

An exemplary nucleic acid sequence (cloned from E. coli DH10B genome) encoding E. coli SelA is:

(SEQ ID NO: 78) ATGACAACCGAAACGCGTTTCCTCTATAGTCAACTTCCGGCTATTGATCG CTTATTGCGCGATAGCTCCTTCCTTTCTTTGCGTGATACTTATGGTCACA CCCGCGTGGTGGAATTGTTGCGTCAGATGCTCGACGAAGCGCGAGAAGTG ATTCGTGGCAGCCAGACGCTGCCTGCGTGGTGTGAAAACTGGGCGCAAGA AGTCGATGCCCGGTTGACGAAAGAAGCGCAGAGCGCGCTGCGTCCGGTGA TCAACCTGACGGGAACCGTGCTGCATACCAACCTTGGGCGAGCTTTACAG GCGGAAGCCGCGGTGGAAGCCGTTGCGCAGGCTATGCGTTCGCCAGTGAC CCTCGAGTATGATCTGGACGACGCCGGACGCGGACATCGCGATCGGGCGC TGGCGCAGCTGCTGTGCCGTATTACGGGGGCGGAAGATGCCTGTATCGTC AATAACAATGCGGCGGCGGTGTTATTGATGTTGGCGGCCACTGCCAGCGG AAAAGAGGTGGTGGTATCTCGCGGCGAACTGGTGGAGATTGGCGGCGCGT TTCGTATTCCCGATGTTATGCGTCAGGCAGGCTGCACCCTACACGAAGTA GGGACCACCAACCGCACGCACGCGAATGATTATCGTCAGGCGGTGAATGA AAATACCGCACTGTTGATGAAAGTACATACCAGTAACTACAGCATTCAGG GGTTCACCAAAGCGATAGATGAAGCGGAACTGGTGGCGCTCGGCAAAGAG CTGGATGTTCCCGTAGTGACTGATTTAGGCAGTGGCTCGCTGGTCGATCT TAGCCAGTACGGTTTGCCGAAAGAGCCAATGCCGCAGGAGTTGATTGCGG CGGGCGTCAGTCTGGTGAGTTTCTCCGGCGACAAGTTGTTAGGCGGGCCG CAGGCAGGAATTATTGTTGGTAAAAAAGAGATGATCGCCCGCCTGCAAAG CCACCCGCTGAAGCGTGCATTACGCGCGGATAAAATGACCCTCGCGGCGC TGGAAGCCACGTTGCGTCTTTATTTACACCCTGAAGCTCTGAGTGAAAAA TTACCGACCCTGCGCCTGCTTACCCGCAGCGCAGAGGTCATTCAAATCCA GGCACAACGTTTACAGGCCCCCCTTGCCGCACATTACGGCGCGGAGTTTG CGGTACAGGTTATGCCATGTCTTTCGCAGATTGGCAGTGGTTCGCTGCCG GTTGATCGCCTGCCGAGCGCGGCATTAACGTTTACACCCCATGATGGACG CGGTAGCCACCTTGAGTCATTAGCCGCCCGCTGGCGTGAATTGCCAGTGC CGGTGATTGGTCGTATTTATGACGGACGATTGTGGCTGGATTTACGCTGC CTTGAAGATGAGCAACGGTTTTTGGAGATGTTGTTGAAATGA

Other organisms also encode a SelA. Thus, in other embodiments, the SelA is not wildtype E. coli SelA. Results show wildtype E. coli SelA does not efficiently convert seryl-tRNA^(Sec) to selenocysteinyl-tRNA^(Sec) for at least some of the exemplary allo-tRNA disclosed in more detail below. Thus, in these embodiments, an alternative or variant SelA can be utilized for recombinant selenoprotein preparation.

SelA species which recognize 12-bp type tRNA^(Sec) molecules have Pro and Ala (and Gly in a metagenome sequence) in the position for the Ile25 of Aquifex aeolicus SelA. Therefore, such SelA species can be used to convert seryl-tRNA^(Sec) to selenocysteinyl-tRNA^(Sec). Alternatively, SelA species which recognize 13-bp type tRNA^(Sec) molecules (such as E. coli) can be engineered to have, for example, Pro, Ala, or Gly in the amino acid position corresponding to position 25 (Ile25) of Aquifex aeolicus SelA.

The amino acid residues involved in the fixation of the SelA N-terminal domain are shown in FIG. 17. The crystal structure of Aquifex aeolicus SelA and Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis tRNA^(Sec) with a 13-bp amino-acid acceptor branch (PDB accession no. 3wlk) is exemplified. Other preferred residues that in can be imported (e.g., substituted) from SelA species which recognize 12-bp type tRNA^(Sec) molecules into SelA species which recognize 13-bp type tRNA^(Sec) molecules include, but are not limited to those corresponding with positions 25, 26, 29, 129, 332, and 333 of Aquifex aeolicus SelA.

The amino acid sequence for Aquifex aeolicus SelA (UniProtKB-067140 (SELA_AQUAE)) is

(SEQ ID NO: 79) MKSLLRQIPQISKVVEIFKKKYPE

VV

AAREVAEKYRKEIIEGKRKDL NGFLEDVERKIKSLMKPNIKRVINATGVVINTNLGRAPLSKDVINFISEI ANGYSNLEYNLEEGKRGSRIAHIEKYLN

LTGAESSFVVNNNAGAVFLVL NTLAEGKEVIISRGELVEIGGSFRIPDIMKKSGAILREVGTTNKTKVSDY EGAINQNTALLMKVHKSNFYMEGFVEEVKLEDLVKLGHKYGIPTYYDAGS GLLINLKEFGISVDEPNFRDCISLGIDLVSGSGDKLLGGPQAGIIVGKKN LIEKIKKNPIARALRIDKLTLSGLEMTLKLY

KRYEDIPVIRMLTQDEKA LRQKAKRLEKLLKDIPGLKISVIKDKAKPGGGSLPELELPTYCVAIRHDR LSSQELSRRLRLAEPPIVCRIREDQLLFDMRTVFHEDLKTIKKTLQELLS I

The amino acid of 125, Y26, K29, E129, F332, and E333 of Aquifex aeolicus SelA are identified with bold and italics. The corresponding amino acid residues from SelA species that recognize 12-bp type tRNA^(Sec)molecules are illustrated in FIG. 17 or can be identified using sequence alignment, and can be used as a basis for reengineering SelA species that recognize 12-bp type tRNA^(Sec) to variants that recognize allo-tRNAs.

Exemplary SelA proteins that recognize allo-tRNAs as illustrated in the examples below include, but are not limited to, those from Sulfurimonas honglongensis, Aeromonas salmonicida, and Rubrobacter xylanophilus.

An exemplary amino acid sequence for Aeromonas salmonicida SelA is

(SEQ ID NO: 80) MPNSSHAPAIAHSHSQPESCPTADDSLPDSLPDSLPQPSQQQARRLPQVE QLLQQPFLTGFIEALSRPLVTQAVRDVLSELRQSEAFRQHGVAPEQIEAL IAKRCQQQLRQRQTRVINATGTLVHTNLGRSPLSRELWDEVRDLNTGYNN LELDLATGKRGGRKGLIAPLLRCLTQAEDSLVVNNNAASLFLLLQEIAKG REVIVSRGEQIQIGGGFRIPDILALSGAKLVEVGTTNITTAKDYLDAITD QTALVLMVHRSNFAIRGFTESPDIGEVARALPEHVVLAVDQGSGLTTEEF APDETSVRQYIKAGADLVCYSGDKLLGGPQSGIISGRSDLIKRLEKHPMM RTFRPSRIVYSLLERLLIHKLNKSPIGEGIAQRTLSNPAAMQARADQLMA ALPGCFVPVPAQLVVGGGTLPDEFYPAPALECTDPRPAQQLLDALRKLPV PVIATVRQQKVLLNMATLLPTEIALLIAQLKELLLPTPTTATEEP

An exemplary nucleic acid sequence (cloned from the Aeromonas salmonicida genome) encoding Aeromonas salmonicida SelA is

(SEQ ID NO: 81) ATGCCGAACTCGTCTCACGCGCCAGCCATCGCCCACTCTCACAGTCAGCC CGAATCATGTCCCACTGCCGACGATTCACTGCCAGATTCACTGCCAGATT CACTGCCACAGCCCAGCCAGCAACAAGCGCGCCGTCTACCGCAAGTGGAA CAGCTGCTGCAGCAACCCTTTCTCACCGGTTTTATCGAGGCGCTGAGCCG CCCGCTGGTGACCCAGGCGGTGCGCGATGTCCTGAGCGAATTGCGCCAGA GCGAGGCATTTCGCCAGCATGGGGTTGCCCCCGAGCAAATCGAGGCACTG ATTGCCAAGCGTTGCCAGCAGCAGCTGCGCCAACGTCAGACCCGGGTGAT CAACGCCACCGGCACCCTGGTGCACACCAATCTGGGGCGCTCGCCGCTAA GTCGCGAGCTGTGGGACGAGGTGCGCGACCTCAACACTGGCTACAACAAT CTGGAACTGGATCTCGCCACCGGCAAGCGCGGCGGGCGCAAGGGGCTGAT CGCCCCCCTGCTCCGTTGCCTCACCCAGGCCGAGGATTCGCTGGTGGTCA ACAACAACGCCGCTTCGCTCTTCTTGCTGCTGCAGGAGATAGCCAAGGGG CGCGAGGTGATCGTCTCGCGGGGCGAACAGATCCAGATTGGTGGCGGCTT TCGCATTCCCGACATTCTGGCGCTCTCCGGCGCCAAACTGGTGGAGGTGG GCACCACCAATATCACTACCGCCAAAGATTACCTCGATGCCATCACAGAT CAGACCGCGCTGGTGCTGATGGTACACAGATCCAATTTCGCCATTCGCGG CTTTACCGAATCCCCCGATATTGGCGAGGTGGCCCGCGCCCTGCCCGAGC ACGTGGTGCTGGCGGTGGATCAGGGCTCGGGCTTGACCACCGAGGAGTTT GCACCGGACGAAACCTCGGTGCGTCAGTACATCAAGGCGGGGGCGGATCT GGTCTGCTACTCCGGCGACAAGCTGCTGGGTGGCCCGCAATCGGGCATCA TCAGCGGCCGCAGCGACCTCATCAAGCGGCTGGAAAAACACCCCATGATG CGCACCTTCCGCCCGAGCCGCATCGTCTACTCCCTGCTGGAACGCCTGCT CATCCACAAGCTCAACAAGTCCCCCATCGGCGAGGGCATCGCCCAGCGCA CCTTGAGCAACCCTGCCGCCATGCAGGCCCGCGCCGATCAGCTGATGGCC GCCCTGCCCGGCTGCTTTGTGCCGGTCCCCGCCCAGCTGGTGGTGGGTGG TGGCACCCTGCCGGACGAGTTCTACCCTGCGCCTGCGCTCGAATGCACCG ACCCGCGTCCGGCCCAGCAGCTGCTCGATGCCCTGCGGAAACTGCCGGTG CCGGTCATCGCCACCGTGCGCCAGCAGAAGGTGCTGCTCAATATGGCGAC CCTGCTGCCGACCGAGATTGCACTGCTTATCGCCCAACTCAAGGAGTTGC TACTGCCCACTCCGACCACTGCGACCGAGGAGCCCTGA

An exemplary amino acid sequence for Rubrobacter xylanophilus SelA is

(SEQ ID NO: 82) MLDAERQSRLRSLPAVDAVLRGPAAGLAARHGRAAVAAAVREVLEGLRRE IAAGGSPDVSGRAVAEGAARLLSGRGLRRVVNATGVVLHTNLGRAVLSER AAAAAARAGTSYSNLEYDLSRGRRGSRYDHAVPLLRELTGAEDALVVNNC AGATLLALSALAGEEGEGPPEVVVSRGQLIEIGGGFRIPEVLELSGAVLR EVGTTNRTRLSDYERALSERTRAILWVHPSNFEIRGFTESAGIAELAGLG PPVVADLGSGALLPLGGEPLVQAALRDGAELALFSGDKLLGGPQAGIAAG SSRLVRRMRRHPLVRALRADKLCLAALEATLRAYLEGRAEEEVPAQRMLR EPLEGVEARARRLASALSREVPGLEVGVVPSVARSGGGTLPGYEIPSFAA RVLGADAEALAARLRAAEPPVVGRVHEGALLLDARTLLPGDEEAVVEALR EAARG

An exemplary nucleic acid sequence encoding Rubrobacter xylanophilus SelA is

(SEQ ID NO: 83) ATGCTGGATGCAGAACGTCAGAGCCGTCTGCGTAGCCTGCCTGCAGTTGA TGCAGTTCTGCGTGGTCCGGCAGCAGGTCTGGCAGCACGTCATGGTCGTG CAGCAGTTGCAGCAGCAGTTCGTGAAGTTCTGGAAGGTCTGCGTCGTGAA ATTGCAGCCGGTGGTAGTCCGGATGTTAGCGGTCGTGCCGTTGCAGAAGG TGCAGCCCGTCTGCTGAGTGGTCGTGGCCTGCGTCGCGTTGTTAATGCAA CCGGTGTTGTTCTGCATACCAATCTGGGTCGTGCGGTTCTGAGCGAACGT GCAGCCGCAGCAGCGGCACGTGCAGGCACCAGCTATAGCAATCTGGAATA TGATCTGAGCCGTGGTCGTCGTGGTAGCCGTTATGATCATGCAGTTCCTC TGCTGCGTGAACTGACCGGTGCAGAAGATGCACTGGTTGTTAATAACTGT GCCGGTGCAACCCTGCTGGCACTGAGCGCACTGGCAGGCGAAGAAGGTGA AGGTCCGCCTGAAGTTGTTGTTAGTCGTGGTCAGCTGATTGAAATTGGTG GTGGTTTTCGTATTCCGGAAGTGCTGGAACTGAGTGGTGCCGTTCTGCGC GAAGTTGGTACAACCAATCGTACCCGTCTGAGCGATTATGAACGTGCACT GAGTGAACGTACCCGTGCAATTCTGTGGGTTCATCCGAGCAATTTTGAAA TTCGCGGTTTTACCGAAAGCGCAGGTATTGCAGAACTGGCTGGTCTGGGT CCTCCGGTTGTTGCAGATCTGGGTAGCGGTGCACTGCTGCCGCTGGGTGG TGAACCGCTGGTTCAGGCAGCACTGCGTGATGGTGCCGAACTGGCACTGT TTAGCGGTGATAAACTGCTGGGTGGACCGCAGGCTGGTATTGCCGCAGGT AGCAGCCGTCTGGTTCGTCGTATGCGTCGTCATCCGCTGGTGCGTGCCCT GCGTGCAGATAAACTGTGCCTGGCAGCCCTGGAAGCAACACTGCGTGCAT ATCTGGAAGGCCGTGCCGAAGAAGAAGTTCCGGCACAGCGTATGCTGCGC GAACCACTGGAAGGTGTTGAAGCACGTGCCCGTCGTCTGGCAAGCGCACT GAGTCGTGAAGTGCCTGGTCTGGAAGTTGGTGTTGTGCCGAGCGTTGCAC GTAGCGGTGGTGGCACCCTGCCTGGTTATGAAATTCCGAGCTTTGCAGCA CGTGTTCTGGGTGCAGATGCAGAAGCCCTGGCAGCGCGTCTGCGTGCCGC AGAACCGCCTGTTGTGGGTCGTGTTCATGAAGGTGCCCTGCTGCTGGATG CCCGTACCCTGCTGCCAGGTGATGAAGAAGCAGTTGTTGAAGCGCTGCGT GAGGCAGCCCGTGGTTAA

An exemplary amino acid sequence for Sulfurimonas honglongensis SelA is

(SEQ ID NO: 84) MFLLKSIPKVDKFIAKKEFKTLGSALVMSLTKELLSELRENILNGRVTTF SEDELVKELLQRYTELTKPSLQTLINATGIIVHTNLGRSLIDADAFDRVK ELMTNYNNLEFNLESGKRGERYSLISKSVCSLLGCEDVLIVNNNASAVFL ILNTFARKKEVVVSRGELVEIGGSFRVPDVMKQSGAKLVEVGTTNKTHLY DYEDAIGKKTSMLMKVHKSNYSIEGFSSDVEFGEIVKLACEKGLIDYYDM GSGHLFDLPYGLDEPSVLDFMKLNPSLLSFSGDKLLGSVQAGIIVGKKKY IDMLKKNQLLRMLRVDKLTLALLEESFKAILLGNKEQIPTARMLFRSTDE LREDAMQVQQKLKKNIKTNIVDTKTLIGGGTTPNKTIPSVALVIESKNIK VKKLQKLFRQKSIIGRIEDDEFLLDFRTIQKTQLQQVVDAIDEITDV

An exemplary nucleic acid sequence encoding Sulfurimonas honglongensis SelA is

(SEQ ID NO: 85) ATGTTCCTGCTGAAAAGCATTCCGAAAGTGGATAAGTTTATCGCCAAGAA AGAGTTTAAAACCCTGGGTAGCGCACTGGTTATGAGCCTGACCAAAGAAC TGCTGAGCGAACTGCGTGAAAACATTCTGAATGGTCGTGTTACCACCTTT AGCGAAGATGAACTGGTTAAAGAGCTGCTGCAGCGTTATACCGAACTGAC CAAACCGAGCCTGCAGACCCTGATTAATGCAACCGGTATTATTGTTCATA CCAATCTGGGTCGTAGCCTGATTGATGCAGATGCATTTGATCGTGTTAAA GAACTGATGACCAACTATAACAACCTGGAATTTAATCTGGAAAGCGGTAA ACGTGGTGAACGCTATAGTCTGATTAGCAAAAGCGTTTGTAGCCTGCTGG GTTGTGAAGATGTTCTGATTGTGAATAATAACGCCAGCGCAGTTTTTCTG ATTCTGAACACCTTTGCGCGTAAAAAAGAAGTTGTTGTTAGTCGCGGTGA ACTGGTGGAAATTGGTGGTAGCTTTCGTGTTCCGGATGTTATGAAACAGA GCGGTGCAAAACTGGTTGAAGTTGGCACCACCAATAAAACCCATCTGTAT GATTATGAAGATGCCATCGGTAAAAAAACGAGCATGCTGATGAAAGTGCA CAAAAGCAACTATAGCATTGAAGGTTTTAGCAGCGACGTGGAATTTGGCG AAATTGTTAAACTGGCATGTGAAAAAGGCCTGATCGATTATTATGATATG GGTAGCGGTCACCTGTTTGATCTGCCGTATGGTCTGGATGAACCGAGCGT TCTGGACTTTATGAAACTGAATCCGAGTCTGCTGAGCTTTAGCGGTGATA AACTGCTGGGTAGTGTTCAGGCAGGCATTATTGTTGGCAAAAAAAAGTAT ATCGACATGCTGAAGAAAAACCAGCTGCTGCGTATGCTGCGTGTGGATAA ACTGACCCTGGCACTGCTGGAAGAAAGTTTTAAAGCAATTCTGCTGGGCA ACAAAGAGCAGATTCCGACCGCACGTATGCTGTTTCGTAGCACCGATGAA CTGCGCGAAGATGCAATGCAGGTTCAGCAGAAACTGAAAAAAAACATCAA GACCAACATCGTGGATACCAAAACACTGATTGGTGGCGGTACAACCCCGA ATAAAACCATTCCGAGCGTTGCCCTGGTTATTGAAAGCAAAAACATTAAG GTGAAAAAACTGCAGAAGCTGTTTCGCCAGAAAAGTATTATTGGTCGCAT CGAGGATGATGAATTTCTGCTGGATTTTCGTACGATTCAGAAAACCCAAC TGCAGCAGGTTGTTGATGCAATTGATGAAATTACCGACGTGTAA

In some embodiments, the SelA is a variant SelA that has at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:79, 80, 82, or 84.

In some embodiments, the SelA had one or more the mutations discussed below (see, e.g., Table 5, and the discussion thereof), or the corresponding mutation in another species or organism.

Typically the disclosed SelA or variant SelA can convert seryl-tRNA^(Sec), O-phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Sec) or both to selenocysteinyl-tRNA^(Sec) for one or more of the disclosed tRNA^(Sec).

3. Substrates for PSTK

PSTK is a kinase in archaeal and eukaryotic systems that phosphorylates Ser-tRNA^(Sec) to O-phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Sec), an activated intermediate for selenocysteine biosynthesis. Accordingly, in some embodiments, once aminoacylated with serine, the non-naturally occurring tRNA can serve as a substrate for a PSTK, or variant thereof. The enzyme activity of PSTK is strictly tRNA^(Sec)-dependent. PSTK does not hydrolyze ATP in the absence of tRNA nor in the presence of Ser-tRNA^(Ser). The binding of tRNA^(Sec), however, promotes ATP hydrolysis (R. Lynn Sherrer, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 36(4): 1247-1259 (2008)). This indicates that tRNA^(Sec) might play an important role in positioning the Ser moiety for initiating phosphoryl transfer. Compared to aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, PSTK has approximately 20-fold higher affinity toward its substrate, Ser-tRNA^(Sec) (Km=40 nM) (R. Lynn Sherrer, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 36(4): 1247-1259 (2008)), which may compensate for the low abundance of tRNA^(Sec) in vivo. The concentration of tRNA^(Sec) in vivo is at least 10-fold lower than tRNA^(Ser) in tRNA^(Sec)-rich tissues such as liver, kidney and testes in rat (Diamond, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 268:14215-14223 (1993)).

The crystal structure of Methanocaldococcus jannaschii PSTK (MjPSTK) places archaeal PSTK identity elements (G2:C71 and the C3:G70) (Sherrer, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 36:1871-1880 (2008)). within contact of the protein dimer interface. The second base pair in the acceptor stem is highly conserved as C2:G71 in eukaryotic tRNA^(Sec), and mutation of G2:C71 to C2:G71 in archaeal tRNA^(Sec) resulted in a Ser-tRNA^(Sec) variant that is phosphorylated inefficiently (Sherrer, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 36:1871-1880 (2008). The A5-U68 base pair in Methanococcus maripaludis tRNA^(Ser) has some antideterminant properties for PSTK (Sherrer, et al., NAR, 36(6):1871-1880 (2008)). Moreover, the eukaryotic PSTK has been reported to recognize the unusual D-arm of tRNA^(Sec) as the major identity element for phosphorylation (Wu and Gross EMBO J., 13:241-248 (1994)). Accordingly, in some embodiments, the disclosed tRNAs include residues in the acceptor stem, the D-arm, or combinations thereof that are needed for the tRNA to serve as a substrate for a PSTK.

4. Substrate for SepSecS

The conversion of phosphoseryl-tRNA^(Sec) (Sep-tRNA^(Sec)) to selenocysteinyl-tRNA^(Sec) (Sec-tRNA^(Sec)) is the last step of Sec biosynthesis in both archaea and eukaryotes, and it is catalyzed by tetratmeric O-phosphoseryl-tRNA:selenocysteinyl-tRNA synthase (SepSecS). It is believed that one SepSecS homodimer interacts with the sugar-phosphate backbone of both the acceptor-TΨC and the variable arms of tRNA^(Sec), while the other homodimer interacts specifically with the tip of the acceptor arm through interaction between the conserved Arg398 and the discriminator base G73 of human tRNA^(Sec).

The co-crystal structure of SepSecS and tRNA^(Sec) also shows that the 9 bp acceptor stem of tRNA^(Sec) is probably important for recognition by the enzyme (Palioura, S, Sherrer, R L, Steitz, T A, Söll, D & Simonovic, M (2009) Science 325:321-325). According to structural analysis, the acceptor-T-variable arm elbow region of tRNA^(Sec) (including bases G50, G51, C64, C65 in the human tRNA^(Sec) that are recognized by SepSecS) may be important for recognition by SepSecS. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the disclosed tRNAs include residues in the acceptor-TΨC, the variable arms of tRNA^(Sec), the tip of the acceptor arm, or combinations thereof needed for the tRNA to serve as a substrate for SepSecS. In some embodiments, the G50, G51, C64, C65 elements of human tRNA^(Sec) are present in the tRNASec.

The SepSecS enzyme itself can also be mutated to engineer enzyme variants that accept a substrate somewhat less ideal than naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec). It is believed that His30, Arg33, Lys38 in SepSecS form key interactions with the protomer and G50, U51, C64 and C65 of the tRNA. Therefore, mutation of some of these residues could result in a SepSecS variant that is better able to recognize one of the tRNASec. The formed Sec-tRNA^(Sec) can be screened in the formate dehydrogenase-benzyl viologen assay [e.g., (Yuan, J, Palioura, S, Salazar, J C, Su, D, O'Donoghue, P, Hohn, M J, Cardoso, A M, Whitman, W B & Söll, D (2006), Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 103:18923-18927; Palioura, S, Sherrer, R L, Steitz, T A, Söll, D & Simonovic, M (2009) Science 325:321-325)]. Other assays include standard Wolfson assay [e.g., (Yuan, J, Palioura, S, Salazar, J C, Su, D, O'Donoghue, P, Hohn, M J, Cardoso, A M, Whitman, W B & Söll, D (2006) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:18923-18927; Palioura, S, Sherrer, R L, Steitz, T A, Söll, D & Simonovic, M (2009) Science 325:321-325)], labeling with [75Se]selenite in the presence of selenophosphate synthase (SelD) [e.g., (Yuan, J, Palioura, S, Salazar, J C, Su, D, O'Donoghue, P, Hohn, M J, Cardoso, A M, Whitman, W B & Söll, D (2006) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:18923-18927)], and using [14C] or [3H]serine in the initial charging reaction.

In some embodiments, a SepCysS is used instead of SepSecS. SepCysS is a key PLP-dependent enzyme in Cys-tRNA formation in methanogens. It converts Sep-tRNA^(Cys) into Cys-tRNA^(Cys) using thiophosphate as sulfur donor. The enzyme's crystal structure is established (Fukunaga, R & Yokoyama, S (2007) Nat Struct Mol Biol 14:272-279.) and its mechanism (Liu, Y., Dos Santos, P. C., Zhu, X., Orlando, R., Dean, D. R., Söll, D. and Yuan, J. (2012) J. Biol. Chem. 287, 5426-5433) is different from that of SepSecS (Palioura, S, Sherrer, R L, Steitz, T A, Söll, D & Simonovic, M (2009) Science 325:321-325.). The length of the acceptor stem of its tRNA substrates is not critical and acceptor helices between 7-9 bp are acceptable. Therefore, this enzyme's active site can be engineered to allow selenophosphate (instead of thiophosphate) to participate in the reaction.

5. Primary Structure

tRNAs can be described according to their primary structure (i.e., the sequence from 5′ to 3′) as well as their secondary structure. The secondary structure of tRNA is typically referred to as a “cloverleaf”, which assumes a 3D L-shaped tertiary structure through coaxial stacking of the helices. FIG. 2 illustrates a typical human tRNA^(Sec), which includes an acceptor arm, a D-arm, an anticodon arm, a variable arm, and a TΨC-arm.

In some embodiments the tRNA^(Sec) shares sequence identity or sequence homology with a naturally occurring tRNA, for example a naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec), or a naturally occurring tRNA^(Ser).

a. Variants of Naturally Occurring tRNA^(Sec)

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein can be a variant of a naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec). The naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) can be from a prokaryote, including but not limited to E. coli, an archaea, including, but not limited to, M. maripaludis and M. jannaschii, or a eukaryote including, but not limited to human.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is a variant of an E. coli tRNA^(Sec), for example, GGAAGAUCGUCGUCUCCGGUGAGGCGGCUGGACUUCAAAUCCAGUUGGGGCCGCCA GCGGUCCCGGGCAGGUUCGACUCCUGUGAUCUUCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:1), which is depicted in FIG. 3 (left panel).

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is a variant of an M. maripaludis tRNA^(Sec), for example,

(SEQ ID NO: 2) GGCACGGGGUGCUUAUCUUGGUAGAUGAGGGCGGACUUCAGAUCCGUCGA GUUCCGUUGGAAUUCGGGGUUCGAUUCCCCCCCUGCGCCGCCA.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is a variant of a human tRNA^(Sec), for example, GCCCGGAUGAUCCUCAGUGGUCUGGGGUGCAGGCUUCAAACCUGUAGCUGUCUAGG GACAGAGUGGUUCAAUUCCACCUUUCGGGCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:3), which is depicted in FIG. 2.

An exemplary variant of E. coli tRNA^(Sec) is tRNA^(SecUX) _(am), described in Thyer, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 137:46-49 (2015) (SEQ ID NO:18), wherein the circled region of FIG. 3B was mutated in tRNA^(Sec) (e.g., SEQ ID NO:1) to enable recognition by EF-Tu. The EF-Tu recognition region is very similar between tRNA^(UTu) and tRNA^(SecUX); residues G7, U64, G65, and C66 are shared between the two. Residues 50 and 49 are different between tRNA^(SecUX) and tRNA^(UTu) (discussed in more detail below).

b. Variants of Naturally Occurring tRNA^(Ser)

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein can be a variant of a naturally occurring tRNA^(Ser). The naturally occurring tRNA^(Ser) can be from a prokaryote, including but not limited to E. coli, an archaea, including, but not limited to, M. maripaludis and M. jannaschii, or a eukaryote including, but not limited to human.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is a variant of an E. coli tRNA^(Ser), for example, GGAAGUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUUGAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAGG GUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCGCUUCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:4), depicted in FIG. 3C.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is a variant of an M. maripaludis tRNA^(Ser), for example,

(SEQ ID NO: 5) GCAGAGGUGGUUGAGCUUGGCCAAAGGCGCCGGACUUGAAAUCCGGUUCU CCACUGGGGAGCGGGGGUUCAAAUCCCUCCCUCUGCGCCA.

c. Chimeric tRNA^(Sec)

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein can also be a chimeric tRNA including sequences from two or more naturally occurring tRNAs. Some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA includes sequences from a naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) and a naturally occurring tRNA^(Ser). The chimeric tRNA can include nucleic acid sequences or features, for example an antideterminant element, from a prokaryote, including but not limited to E. coli, an archaea, including, but not limited to, M. maripaludis and M. jannaschii, or a eukaryote including, but not limited to, human.

Examples of non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) that are chimeric tRNAs including sequence elements from E. coli include, but are not limited to

GGAAGAUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUUCAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAG GGUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCAUCUUCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:6; E. coli tRNA^(UTu)-opal), as depicted in FIG. 3B; GGAAGAUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUCUAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAG GGUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCAUCUUCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:7; E. coli tRNA^(UTu)-amber), as depicted in FIG. 3B; and GGAAGAUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUUUAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAG GGUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCAUCUUCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:8; E. coli tRNA ^(UTu)-ochre).

Other examples of non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) that are chimeric tRNAs including sequence elements from E. coli include, but are not limited to

GGCACUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUUCAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAGG GUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCGGUGCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:9; E. coli tRNA^(UTu)-opal), as depicted in FIG. 4B; GGCACUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUCUAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAGG GUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCGGUGCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:10; E. coli tRNA^(UTu)-amber), as depicted in FIG. 4B; and GGCACUGUGGCCGAGCGGUUGAAGGCACCGGUCUUUAAAACCGGCGACCCGAAAGG GUUCCAGAGUUCGAAUCUCUGCGGUGCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:11; E. coli tRNA^(UTu)-ochre), which are non-naturally occurring chimeras of E. coli tRNA^(Ser) with PSTK identity elements.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(sec) is a variant of tRNA^(UTu), for example, SEQ ID NO:7:

G¹GAAG⁵A^(5a)UGUGG¹⁰CCGAGCGGU²⁰UGAAGGCACCGG³⁰UCUCUAAAAC⁴⁰CGGCGA CCCGAAAGGGUUCCA⁵⁰GAGUUCGAAU⁶⁰CUCUGCAU^(67a)CUU⁷⁰CCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:7; E. coli tRNA^(UTu)-amber) (wherein the anticodon is bolded and in italics),

or the opal or ochre equivalent thereof (e.g., SEQ ID NO:6 or 8). In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) has at least 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 97, 98, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 6, 7, or 8.

The anticodon is in italics. tRNA positional markers (e.g., 1, 5, 5a, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 67a, 70 according to the numbering of Sprinzl, et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 26(1):148-153 (1998)) are provided in superscript and are not part of the tRNA sequence.

An exemplary tRNA^(UTu) variant is UTuX

G¹GAAG⁵A^(5a)UG GU G¹⁰CCG UC CGGU²⁰GAAGGC G CCGG³⁰UCU

AA AC⁴⁰CGG U CGACCCGAAAGGGUUC G CA⁵⁰G G GUUCGA C U⁶⁰C C CUGCA U^(67a)CUU⁷⁰CCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 17; E. coli scaffold, tRNA^(UTuX)-amber, and depected in FIG. 5a), or an opal or ochre equivalent thereof.

Examples of non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) that are chimeric tRNAs including sequence elements from M. maripaludis include, but are not limited to,

GGCGCGGUGGUUGAGCUUGGCCAAAGGCGCCGGACUUCAAAUCCGGUUCUCCACUG GGGAGCGGGGGUUCAAAUCCCUCCCGCGCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:13; M. maripaludis tRNA^(UTu)-opal), as depicted in FIG. 4A; GGCGCGGUGGUUGAGCUUGGCCAAAGGCGCCGGACUCUAAAUCCGGUUCUCCACUG GGGAGCGGGGGUUCAAAUCCCUCCCGCGCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:14; M. maripaludis tRNA^(UTu)-amber), as depicted in FIG. 4A; GGCGCGGUGGUUGAGCUUGGCCAAAGGCGCCGGACUUUAAAUCCGGUUCUCCACUG GGGAGCGGGGGUUCAAAUCCCUCCCGCGCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO:15; M. maripaludis tRNA^(UTu)-ochre).

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) are chimeric tRNAs that include sequence elements from a yeast tRNA in combination with elements from a non-yeast tRNA. Typically the tRNA^(Sec) can be a substrate for a SerRS and a SelA and bind to eEF1α.

For example, in some embodiments, the chimeric tRNA is a variant of a yeast tRNA^(Ser) such as:

(SEQ ID NO: 149, DNA) GGCAACTTGGCCGAGTGGTTAAGGCGAAAGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTT TGCCCGCGCAGGTTCGAGTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 150, RNA, FIG. 20B) GGCAACUUGGCCGAGUGGUUAAGGCGAAAGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUU UGCCCGCGCAGGUUCGAGUCCUGCAGUUGUCG

In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) includes elements, for example, in the tRNA acceptor branch and in combination with other elements (e.g., identity elements, from Aeromonas salmonicida). The anticodon of tRNA^(Ser) is not an identity element for aminoacylation by SerRS.

An Aeromonas salmonicida tRNA^(Sec) is

(SEQ ID NO: 147, DNA) GGCAACTTGGCCGAGTGGTTAAGGCGAAAGATTAGAAATCTTTTGGGCTT TGCCCGCGCAGGTTCGAGTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 148, RNA, FIG. 20A) GGCAACUUGGCCGAGUGGUUAAGGCGAAAGAUUAGAAAUCUUUUGGGCUU UGCCCGCGCAGGUUCGAGUCCUGCAGUUGUCG

The Examples below illustrate that an efficient nonsense suppressor was designed using Saccharomyces cerevisiae tRNA^(Ser) (SctRNA^(Ser)) for Sec incorporation at amber (UAG) codons. To generate an amber suppressor tRNA^(Sec) species from SctRNA^(Ser), the anticodon was switched from AGA to CUA and AstRNA^(Sec) identity elements were introduced.

Four tRNA^(Sec) variants were tested in the Examples below, each having mutations that may influence tRNA stability and AsSelA recognition. Thus, in some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is a yeast tRNA^(Ser) with one or more of the mutations illustrated in FIGS. 21B-21F. Exemplary yeast tRNA^(Sec) include,

(SEQ ID NO: 151, DNA) GGCAACTTCGCCGTCTGGTGGCGGCGAAAGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTT TGCCCGGGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 152, RNA, FIG. 20C) GGCAACUUCGCCGUCUGGUGGCGGCGAAAGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUU UGCCCGGGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 153, DNA) GGCAACTACGCCGCCTGGTGGCGGCGAAAGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTT TGCCCGGGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 154, RNA, FIG. 20D) GGCAACUACGCCGCCUGGUGGCGGCGAAAGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUU UGCCCGGGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 155, DNA) GGCAACTATGCCGCCTGGTGGCGGCGAAAGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTT TGCCCGGGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG and (SEQ ID NO: 156, RNA, FIG. 20E) GGCAACUAUGCCGCCUGGUGGCGGCGAAAGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUU UGCCCGGGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 157, DNA) GGCAACTATGCCGTCTGGTGGCGGCGAAAGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTT TGCCCGGGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 158, RNA, FIG. 20F) GGCAACUAUGCCGUCUGGUGGCGGCGAAAGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUU UGCCCGGGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG

or the opal or ochre equivalent thereof. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) has a sequence or is encoded by a sequence with at least 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 97, 98, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:147-158.

d. Allo-tRNA

In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is a naturally occurring tRNA or a non-naturally occurring variant thereof. Thus, in some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) includes or consists of a naturally occurring nucleic acid sequence. In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) includes or consists of a naturally occurring nucleic acid sequence with one or more insertions, deletions or substitutions.

In some embodiments, the tRNA^(Sec) is an “allo-tRNA.” Allo-tRNA are structurally similar to tRNA^(Sec) as they have a long V-arm and longer anticodon and acceptor stems compared to canonical tRNAs. Moreover, the D-stem-loop of allo-tRNAs resembles that of tRNA^(Sec) with its long stem and tetraloop. Allo-tRNAs typically have a 8/4 or 9/3 composition of the 12-bp amino-acid acceptor branch. As discussed in more detail in the examples below, naturally occurring allo-tRNA have been identified in, for example, Clostridia, Proteobacteria, and Acidobacteria.

Naturally occurring allo-tRNAs typically have a long V-arm and many have an identity of the discriminator base (G73 or U73) which are important for aminoacylation by seryl-tRNA synthetase (SerRS), though at least one was found to charge with alanine. Many naturally occurring allo-tRNA have an anticodon that recognizes a codon inconsistent with the amino acid charged to it. For example, some of the allo-tRNAs charge with serine, but have a leucine anticodon.

Non-naturally occurring variants of naturally occurring allo-tRNAs are also provided. The non-naturally occurring allo-tRNA typically have one or more insertions, deletions, or substitutions relative to the naturally occurring allo-tRNA. Thus in some embodiments, the only change(s) in a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is substitution of the naturally-occurring anticodon with an alternative anticodon, preferable an anticodon that recognizes a stop codon.

In some embodiments, the naturally occurring allo-tRNA can be additionally or alternatively modified to include a SerRS identity element.

In some embodiments, the variants include one more additional or alternative modifications that improve the tRNAs activity as a tRNA^(Sec), for example, to improve binding to SelA, or improve binding to a EF-Tu.

i. Exemplary Consensus Allo-tRNA

Exemplary consensus primary sequences and secondary structures for allo-tRNA are provided. Exemplary consensus structures are depicted in FIGS. 6A and 6B, and 6D-6F. For the sequences provided below, N denotes A, G, T/U, or C; R denotes A or G; Y denotes T/U or C; K denotes G or T/U; and W denotes A or T/U. The anticodon is in bold and italic

8/4 allo-tRNA, FIG. 6A (SEQ ID NO: 19) GGRGRRNRNNNNNNNNNGGYNNNNNNNNNNGNYU

AANCNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNRNRGUYCRANYCYNYYNYYCYCCNCCA

Typically, an Acceptor Stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 87-80 respectively;

-   -   a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 11-16         with nucleotides 26-21 respectively;     -   an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between         nucleotides 27-32 with nucleotides 45-40 respectively;     -   a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 47-53         with nucleotides 64-58 respectively;     -   a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 65-68         with nucleotides 79-76 respectively;     -   or a combination thereof.

9/3 allo-tRNA (FIG. 6B) (SEQ ID NO: 20) GGRRNNNNNNNNNNNNNYGGNNNNNNNNNNNRNYU

AANYNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNRGGUUCRAYUCCYNNNNNYYCCRCCA

Typically, an Acceptor Stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-9 with nucleotides 91-83 respectively;

-   -   a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 12-17         with nucleotides 27-22 respectively;     -   an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between         nucleotides 28-33 with nucleotides 46-41 respectively;     -   a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 48-56         with nucleotides 69-61 respectively;     -   a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 70-72         with nucleotides 82-80 respectively; or a combination thereof.

8/4 tRNASer (bacteria)(FIG. 6D) (SEQ ID NO: 21) GNNNNRYNANNNNNNNNGGYNNNNNNNNNNGNYY

AANCNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGNUCRANNCNNNNNYNNNNCGCCA

Typically, an Acceptor Stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 87-80 respectively;

-   -   a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 11-16         with nucleotides 26-21 respectively;     -   an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between         nucleotides 27-32 with nucleotides 45-40 respectively;     -   a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 47-53         with nucleotides 64-58 respectively;     -   a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 65-68         with nucleotides 79-76 respectively;     -   or a combination thereof.

ii. Exemplary Allo-tRNA

The following table provides exemplary allo-tRNA sequences.

Results show that SEQ ID NOS:24-30 can be charged with serine by SerRS. SEQ ID NO:27 cannot be charged with serine, however, its discriminator base can be substituted to a nucleotide or nucleotides that are recognized by SerRS.

TABLE 1 Exemplary Allo-tRNA anti- Sequence codon codon type N73 id origin (DNA) UCU AGA (9/3) G 3300001 Marine viral GGGAGCAGGT 739.u: JG communities from the ATGTGTCTGG I24658J2 Deep Pacific Ocean - GGACACGAGC 0074_30 MSP-121 GGTCT

AA 893618 (Metagenome Std ACCGCGTGGG Draft M1679 CCGTGGTTCT Malaspina viral GTCACGGTCG metagenome MSP- GGTTCGATTC 121, CCCCTGCTCC ASSEMBLY_DATE = CG (SEQ ID 20130718) NO: 22) CCU AGG (9/3) G 3300001 Forest soil microbial GGAGTGGTGT 141.u: JG communities from GCCCGGCTGG I12638J1 Davy Crockett TGCCGGGAGC 3249_31 National Forest, AGTTT

AA 3825344 Groveton, Texas, ACTGCCGACG USA - Texas A CTGCGAGGCG ecozone_OM3H0_M TAGGGTTCGA 2 (Texas A TTCCCCACCA ecozone_OM3H0_M TTCCG (SEQ 2, ID NO: 23) ASSEMBLY_DATE = 20130221) UAG CUA (9/3) G 3300004 Wetland microbial GGAGGGTGGT 074.u: Ga communities from the CGCTGTTGGT 0055518 San Francisco Bay, GCAGCGGGCG _301460 California, USA, that GGCC

AAC 185 impact long-term CCGCTGGAGC carbon sequestration - CTCACCGGGC White_ThreeSqA_D1 TAAGGTTCGA TTCCTCCACC CTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 24) CAG CUG (9/3) G 3300002 Forest soil microbial GGAGAGGGCA 954.u: JG communities from AGAGTGACGG I20281J4 Harvard Forest TTCACTCACC 4786_31 LTER, USA - PH CGTCT

AA 0361524 H12_O (Forest soil ACGGGTAACG microbial TCTATCCGGG communities from CGTTGGGTTC Harvard Forest AATTCCCGCC LTER, USA - PH CTCTCCG H12_O, (SEQ ID ASSEMBLY_DATE = NO: 25) 20140709) UUA UAA (9/3) G 3300002 Switchgrass GGGGTGGGGT 459.u: JG rhizosphere microbial TCCGGCTGGT I24751J2 communities from GCCGGTCGCG 9686_33 Kellogg Biological GGCT

AAC 7535576 Station, Michigan, CCGTCAGGAC USA - S6 (KBS GCTGCGACGC Switchgrass S6, GTAAGGTTCG ASSEMBLY_DATE = ATTCCTCCCC 20140130) ACTCCG (SEQ ID NO: 26) UUA UAA (9/3) A 3300000 Soil microbial GGGCGGGGGT 000.u: GP communities from TCCGTCTGGT CYDRA Great Prairies - GACGGTCGCG FT_c328 Wisconsin Native GGCT

AAC 587791 Prairie soil CCGTCAGGAC GCTGTGCAGG CGTTAGGTTC GATTCCTCCC CCGTCCA (SEQ ID NO: 27) UAA UUA (9/3) G 3300002 Oil polluted marine GGAGGGGAAC 225.u: JG microbial TTCTATCTGG I24723J2 communities from TGATAGACGG 6617_31 Coal Oil Point, Santa GAACT

AA 3779256 Barbara, California, TTCCTTGAAA USA - Santa Barbara TGCCTCGCCG Oil Seep Sample 6 CATTGGGTTC (Crude oil GATTCCCTTC metagenome 6, CCCTCCGCCA ASSEMBLY_DATE = (SEQ ID 20131204) NO: 28) CAA UUG (9/3) G 3300003 Arabidopsis thaliana GGAGGGCGGC 396.u: JG rhizosphere microbial TGCTGCTGGT I26137J5 communities from the GCAGCGGGTG 0245_30 Joint Genome GACT

AAT 9810974 Institute, USA, that CCACTGGAGC affect carbon cycling CTGTCGGGGC - Inoculated plant M3 TAGGGTTCGA PM (Arabidopsis TTCCCCCGCC thaliana rhizosphere CTCCG (SEQ microbial ID NO: 29) communities from the Joint Genome Institute, USA, that affect carbon cycling - Inoculated plant M3 PM, ASSEMBLY_DATE = 20140903) CAA UUG (9/3) G 3300003 Bog forest soil GGAGAGTAGA 218.u: JG microbial TTTCATGCGG I26339J4 communities from TTATGAAATG 6600_30 Calvert Island, CGTCT

AA 1272239 British Columbia, ACGCAGAGGG Canada - GGCTACACAC ECP12_OM1 (Bog CCCCAGGGTT Forest metaG CAACTCCCCT ECP12OM1, ACTCTCCG ASSEMBLY_DATE = (SEQ ID 20140815) NO: 30)

Preferred non-naturally occurring allo-tRNA^(Sec) include

>allo-tRNA^(UTu) (also referred to as “2225”) (SEQ ID NO: 31) GGAGGGGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACT

AATTCCTTGAAA TGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 57, RNA) GGAGGGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGAAA UGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA and variants thereof.

Other allo-tRNA^(Sec) include, for example,

>allo-tRNA^(UTu) (Ac-3U variant) (SEQ ID NO: 32, DNA) GGAGGTTGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACT

AATTCCTTGAA ATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCTCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 137, RNA) GGAGGUUGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGAA AUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCUCCUCCGCCA >allo-tRNA^(UTu) (Ac-bU variant) (SEQ ID NO: 33, DNA) GGAGGTGGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACT

AATTCCTTGAA ATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 138, RNA) GGAGGUGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGAA AUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA >allo-tRNA^(UTu) (D-3b variant)(also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu1D)) (SEQ ID NO: 34, DNA) GGAGGGGAACTTCTGTCTGGTGGCAGACGGGAACT

AATTCCTTGAAA TGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 139, RNA) GGAGGGGAACUUCUGUCUGGUGGCAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGAAA UGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA >allo-tRNA^(UTu2) (SEQ ID NO: 35, DNA) GGACGGGGGTTCCGTCTGGTGACGGTCGCGGGCT

AACCCGTCAGGAC GCTGTGCAGGCGTTAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCCGTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 58, RNA) GGACGGGGGUUCCGUCUGGUGACGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGGAC GCUGUGCAGGCGUUAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCCGUCCGCCA >allo-tRNA^(UTu2) (G21 variant)(also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu2D)) (SEQ ID NO: 36, DNA) GGACGGGGGTTCCGTCTGGTGGCGGTCGCGGGCT

AACCCGTCAGGAC GCTGTGCAGGCGTTAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCCGTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 140, RNA) GGACGGGGGUUCCGUCUGGUGGCGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGGAC GCUGUGCAGGCGUUAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCCGUCCGCCA >2459 (SEQ ID NO: 37, DNA) GGAGTGGGGTTCCGGCTGGTGCCGGTCGCGGGCT

AACCCGTCAGGAC GCTGCGACGCGTAAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCACTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 141, RNA) GGAGUGGGGUUCCGGCUGGUGCCGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGGAC GCUGCGACGCGUAAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCACUCCGCCA >S15 UU variant (SEQ ID NO: 38, DNA) GGAGGGCATTTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCT

AAACGGTTGCAGG GTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 142, RNA) GGAGGGCAUUUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCAGG GUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA >S15 CU variant (SEQ ID NO: 39, DNA) GGAGGGCACTTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCT

AAACGGTTGCAGG GTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 143, RNA) GGAGGGCACUUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCAGG GUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA >S15 UC variant (SEQ ID NO: 40, DNA) GGAGGGCATCTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCT

AAACGGTTGCAGG GTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 144, RNA) GGAGGGCAUCUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCAGG GUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA >S15 AA variant (SEQ ID NO: 41, DNA) GGAGGGCAAATTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCT

AAACGGTTGCAGG GTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 145, RNA) GGAGGGCAAAUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCAGG GUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA >S15 AU variant (SEQ ID NO: 42, DNA) GGAGGGCAATTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCT

AAACGGTTGCAGG GTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ ID NO: 146, RNA) GGAGGGCAAUUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCAGG GUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring allo-tRNA^(Sec) is a variant of allo-tRNA^(UTu) encoded by a sequence at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:31.

In some embodiments, the variant has a sequence or is encoded by a sequence with at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:22-42, 57, 58, 137-146.

In some embodiments, the variant includes, for example, transplanting one or more features of Aeromonas tRNA^(Sec) such as a bulged pyrimidine at position 5 or 5a in the 7-bp acceptor stem, U14:G21 wobble base pair in the D-stem of As tRNA^(Sec) or a combination thereof to a disclosed tRNA^(Sec). Thus mutations are designed to improve binding to Aeromonas SelA.

e. 8/4 SelC* tRNA (FIG. 6C)

The Examples below also describe the identification of SelC* tRNAs which were named after the selC gene, which encodes tRNA^(Sec) in E. coli. SelC* tRNA^(Cys) isoacceptors have an U73 discriminator base and cysteine GCA or opal UCA anticodons. U73 and GCA are the most important identity elements for CysRS, and certain CysRS forms are known to cysteinylate tRNA^(Cys)UCA.

A consensus sequence for SelC* tRNA^(Cys) is

(SEQ ID NO: 43) RGGGGCAAYGGYGCUGGGCRCCCCNYGGNCU

AANCCRYNGGC YYNGYCUNNNNARCNRGGAGGAGGUUCGAUUCCCCUUGCCCCYUC CA

Typically, an Acceptor Stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 91-84 respectively;

a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 12-16 with nucleotides 25-21 respectively;

an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 27-32 with nucleotides 46-45 and 43-40 respectively;

a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 48-53 with nucleotides 66-61 respectively;

a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 68-69 and 71-72 with nucleotides 83-80 respectively;

or a combination thereof.

f. Other tRNA Consensus Sequences

8/4 tRNAHis (alpha-proteobacteria) (FIG. 6E) (SEQ ID NO: 44) NCYRRNNANGNUGUAANGGUNGCAYNYNNNRYU

ANYNNNNNG GAYNRGGUUCRRNYCCYNUNNYYRGNACCA

Typically, an Acceptor Stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 71-64 respectively;

a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 11-14 with nucleotides 25-22 respectively;

an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 27-31 with nucleotides 43-39 respectively;

a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 49-52 with nucleotides 63-60 respectively;

or a combination thereof.

8/4 tRNASec (bacteria) (FIG. 6F) (SEQ ID NO: 45) GGRANNNNNNNNGNYCYGGUGRNCNNNNCGGNCU

AANCCGNN UNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGGYGGUUCGAYUCCYCCNNN UYCCGCCA

Typically, an Acceptor Stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 87-94 respectively;

a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 11-16 with nucleotides 26-21 respectively;

an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 27-32 with nucleotides 45-40 respectively;

a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 47-56 with nucleotides 70-61 respectively;

a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 71-72 and 74-75 with nucleotides 86-83 respectively;

or a combination thereof.

g. Variants and Modifications

Any of the disclosed tRNA can be further modified. Modifications can include single and combined exchanges (i.e., substitutions), one or more insertions, one or more deletions, and combinations thereof, of nucleotides in various regions of the tRNA. In some embodiments the modifications alter the variant relative to tRNA^(UTu) to (i) more closely resemble the features of tRNA^(Sec) that contribute to binding of SelA than tRNA^(UTu). The mechanism by which SelA discriminates between tRNA^(Ser) and tRNA^(Sec) is described in Itoh, et al., Science, 340:75-78 (2013). In some embodiments, the important tRNA^(UTu) features that (ii) provide thermodynamic binding specificity for EF-Tu [Schrader, et al., J. Mol. Biol., 386:1255-1264 (2009)], (iii) contribute to reducing the incompatibility between tRNA^(Sec) and EF-Tu [Rudinger, et al., EMBO J., 15:650-657 (1996)], or the combination thereof are left intact. In some embodiments, the variant exhibits (i), (ii), (iii), or a combination thereof, most preferably (i), (ii), and (iii).

In some embodiments, the tRNA exhibits reduced misincorporation Ser in vivo, in vitro, or a combination thereof relative another tRNA^(Sec). In some embodiments, the tRNA exhibits better interaction with SelA (e.g., tighter binding), while retaining robust Ser-tRNA formation by SerRS.

Nucleotide positions within a tRNA sequence can also be identified according to the primary sequence or based the nucleotide numbering established in Sprinzl, et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 26(1):148-153 (1998). As illustrated in text, figures, and sequences provide herein, this numbering system coordinates the relative locations of nucleotides and base pairs between two or more tRNA that may differ in the total number of nucleotides due to insertions and/or deletions. Thus nucleotides in any of the disclosed tRNA can be characterized based the nucleotide numbering from the terminal 5′ nucleotide, or the nucleotide(s) at the base position(s) identified according to the Sprinzl numbering system.

tRNA elements that can be important for selenocysteine insertion, are illustrated with reference tRNA^(UTu) in FIG. 3B. In this figure, the acceptor stem of the tRNA is highlighted as originating from tRNA^(Sec), and is important for recognition by the enzyme SelA. The circled region in FIG. 3 originates from tRNA^(Ser), and is important both for recognition by the enzyme EF-Tu and for its lack of recognition by the enzyme SelB. Thus in some embodiments, the tRNA (e.g., the aminoacylated tRNA) is recognized by SelA and EF-Tu, and optionally is not recognized by selB.

Some of the tRNA disclosed herein feature an anticodon that recognize a codon encoding an amino acid, some feature an anticodon that recognizes a stop codon, and some feature an “NNN” anticodon. The anticodon in any of the disclosed sequences can be substituted with any other anticodon. Anticodons are typically the reverse complement of the codon. Codons are illustrated in Table 2. Thus, each of the disclosed tRNAs are expressly disclosed having every anticodon, preferably an anticodon that recognizes a stop codon. In some embodiments, the anticodon-codon interaction includes basepairing of one or more unnatural nucleobases. Thus, in some embodiments, the anticodon includes one or more unnatural bases.

TABLE 2 Universal Genetic Code Chart: Messenger RNA Codons and Amino Acids for Which They Code.

A non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) tRNA can have a nucleic acid sequence at least 65%, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%,80%,81%,82%,83%,84%,85%,86%,87%,88%,89%,90%,91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more identical to any one or more of SEQ ID NOS:1-63 or 137-158. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is characterized by one or more of the following elements: (1) the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) can be recognized by SerRS and by EF-Tu, or variants thereof; (2) when aminoacylated with serine the non-naturally occurring Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be converted to non-naturally occurring Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by SelA or variant thereof; (3) when aminoacylated with serine the non-naturally occurring Ser-tRNA^(Sec) can be phosphorylated by PSTK or variant thereof; (4) when aminoacylated with phosphorylated serine the non-naturally occurring Sep-tRNA^(Sec) can serve as a substrate for SepSecS or variant thereof.

6. Secondary Structure

The tRNAs disclosed herein typically include an acceptor arm, a D-arm, an anticodon arm, a variable arm, and a TΨC-arm, as described in more detail below.

a. Acceptor Arm

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein includes an acceptor arm. The acceptor arm is the end of a tRNA molecule to which an amino acid becomes bound. It contains both the 5′ and 3′ ends of the tRNA. The 3′-terminal sequence of cytidine-cytidine-adenosine (CCA) overhangs the end, and the terminal A is the site of ‘acceptance’ of the amino acid.

The acceptor stem refers to the 5′ and 3′ sequences to the acceptor arm that form duplex RNA. The acceptor stem can be separate from the CCA overhang by one or more nucleotides, for example one or more guanine. In some embodiments, one or more nucleotides that separate the acceptor stem and the overhang are referred to as the discriminator base(s). For some tRNAs, the discriminator base preceding the CCA sequence at the 3′ end is important for aminoacylation. The discriminator base can influence the stability of the base pair of the acceptor arm onto which it is stacked which can affect the energetic cost of opening the base pair and modulate the structure of the tRNA near the site of aminoacylation. For some aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and other proteins that interact with tRNA, these factors could be important for specific recognition and/or formation of the transition state during catalysis (Lee et al., PNAS, 90(15):7149-52 (1993)). In some embodiments, the acceptor stem and the CCA sequence are separated by a single guanine discriminator base.

The acceptor stem of the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein typically include 4 to 12, preferably 5 to 11, more preferably 6 to 10, most preferably 7 to 9 base pairs of duplex RNA. In some embodiments, the acceptor stem is 7, 8, or 9 base pairs of duplex RNA.

The acceptor stem can be high in G-C content. For example, in some embodiments, the G-C content is 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the nucleotides of the acceptor stem. In some embodiments the G-C is lower, for example, 10%, 20%, 30%, or 40%. In some embodiments, the G-C content is between about 30% and 40%.

The 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the acceptor stem typically form a RNA duplex by Waston-Crick base pairing. The 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the acceptor stem are typically substantially complementary. Preferably, the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the acceptor stem bind to or hybridize to each other under conditions of high stringency and specificity. In some embodiments, 5′ sequence of the tRNA that forms the acceptor stem is 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more complementary to the 3′ sequence of the tRNA that forms the acceptor stem. In some embodiments the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the acceptor stem are 100% complementary.

b. D-arm

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein include a D-arm. The D-arm is typically composed of a D stem of duplex RNA and a D loop of non-duplex RNA. The D stem refers to the two segments of the tRNA primary sequence in the D-arm that form duplex RNA. The D stem of the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) typically include 2 to 8, preferably 3 to 7, more preferably 4 to 6, base pairs of duplex RNA. In some embodiments, the D stem is 4, 5, or 6 base pairs of duplex RNA.

The D stem can be high in G-C content. For example, in some embodiments, the G-C content is 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the nucleotides of the D stem.

The two segments of the tRNA that form the D stem typically form a RNA duplex by Waston-Crick base pairing. The two segments of the tRNA that form the D stem are typically substantially complementary. Preferably, the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the acceptor stem bind to or hybridize to each other under conditions of high stringency and specificity. In some embodiments, 5′ segment of the tRNA that forms the D stem is between 25% and 50% complementary to the 3′ segment of the tRNA that forms the D stem. In some embodiments the 5′ segment of the tRNA that forms the D stem is 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more complementary to the 3′ sequence of the tRNA that forms the D stem. In some embodiments the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the D stem are 100% complementary.

The D loop refers to the part of the D-arm that does not form duplex RNA. The D loop's main function is that of recognition. The D loop can contain the base dihydrouracil. It is widely believed that it will act as a recognition site for aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, which is an enzyme involved in the aminoacylation of the tRNA molecule. The D-loop can have between 3 and 15 nucleotides inclusive, preferably between 4 and 12 nucleotides inclusive. In some embodiments the D-loop has 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 nucleotides.

c. Anticodon Arm

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein include an anticodon arm. The anticodon arm is typically composed of an anticodon stem of duplex RNA and an anticodon loop of non-duplex RNA. The anticodon stem refers to the two segments of the tRNA primary sequence in the anticodon arm that form duplex RNA. The anticodon stem of the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein typically include 2 to 8, preferably 3 to 7, more preferably 4 to 6, base pairs of duplex RNA. In some embodiments, the anticodon stem is 4, 5, or 6 base pairs of duplex RNA.

The anticodon stem can be high in G-C content. For example, in some embodiments, the G-C content is 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the nucleotides of the anticodon stem.

The two segments of the tRNA that form the anticodon stem typically form a RNA duplex by Waston-Crick base pairing. The two segments of the tRNA that form the anticodon stem are typically substantially complementary. Preferably, the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the anticodon stem bind to or hybridize to each other under conditions of high stringency and specificity. In some embodiments the 5′ segment of the tRNA that forms the anticodon stem is 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more complementary to the 3′ sequence of the tRNA that forms the anticodon stem. In some embodiments the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the anticodon stem are 100% complementary.

The anticodon loop refers to the part of the anticodon—arm that does not form duplex RNA. The anticodon loop's main function is to present the anticodon sequence which can hybridize to the target codon in the mRNA sequence of interest. The anticodon sequence can be any three nucleotide sequence that binds by complementary base pairing to the target codon sequence in the mRNA of interest. In some embodiments, the anticodon pairs specifically with only one codon. Some anticodon sequences can pair with more than one codon (i.e., wobble base pairing). In some embodiments, the first nucleotide of the anticodon is inosine or pseudouridine, which can hydrogen bond to more than one base in the corresponding codon position.

In some embodiments, the anticodon hybridizes to a “stop” codon such as UAA, UAG, or UGA, preferably UAG (amber) or UGA (opal). Accordingly, in some embodiments the sequence of the anticodon is UUA, CUA, UCA, preferably CUA (amber) or UCA (opal) (in the 5′ to 3′ direction). The anticodon loop can have between 5 and 11 nucleotides inclusive, preferably about 7 nucleotides. In some embodiments the anticodon-loop has 5, 7, or 9 nucleotides. Typically, the three nucleotide anticodon sequence is flanked by an equal number of nucleotides both 5′ and 3′ of the anticodon sequence within the anticodon loop.

Although in some embodiments, the anticodon is one that recognizes a stop codon, all other possible anticodons (e.g., those that recognize an amino acid codon) are also specifically disclosed for all tRNA disclosed herein. Thus, for example, in some embodiments, a non-naturally occurring tRNA includes the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1-63, or a variant there with at least 80% sequence identity, wherein the anti-codon is substituted with an alternative anti-codon. In addition of the standard A, C, G, U bases the anticodon and/or the corresponding codon of the mRNA of interest may also contain unnatural nucleotide bases. Suitable basepairing to create additional codon-anticodon interaction is described in, for example, Bain, et al., Nature, 356:537-539 (1992), and Malyshev, et al., Nature, 509:385-388 (2014), and supplemental information associated therewith, and include, but are not limited to d5SICS and dNaM(d5SICS-dNaM).

d. Variable Arm

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein typically include a variable arm. The variable arm is typically composed of a variable stem of duplex RNA and a variable loop of non-duplex RNA. The variable stem refers to the two segments of the tRNA primary sequence in the variable arm that form duplex RNA. The variable stem of the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) typically includes 2 to 8, preferably 3 to 7, more preferably 4 to 6, base pairs of duplex RNA. In some embodiments, the variable stem is 4, 5, or 6 base pairs of duplex RNA. In some embodiments the variable stem has 9, 10, 11, or more base pairs of duplex RNA.

The variable stem can be high in G-C content. For example, in some embodiments, the G-C content is 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the nucleotides of the variable stem.

The two segments of the tRNA that form the variable stem typically form a RNA duplex by Waston-Crick base pairing. The two segments of the tRNA that form the anticodon stem are typically substantially complementary. Preferably, the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the variable stem bind to or hybridize to each other under conditions of high stringency and specificity. In some embodiments the 5′ segment of the tRNA that forms the variable stem is 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more complementary to the 3′ sequence of the tRNA that forms the variable stem. In some embodiments the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the variable stem are 100% complementary.

The variable loop refers to the part of the variable—arm that does not form duplex RNA. The variable loop can have between 3 and 7 nucleotides inclusive, preferably between 4 and 6 nucleotides inclusive. In some embodiments the variable loop has 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 nucleotides.

e. TΨC-Arm

The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein includes a TΨC-arm (also referred to herein as a T-arm). The T-arm is the region on the tRNA molecule that acts as a recognition site for the ribosome, and allows a tRNA-ribosome complex to form during the process of protein biosynthesis. The T-arm is typically composed of a T stem of duplex RNA and a T loop of non-duplex RNA. The T stem refers to the two segments of the tRNA primary sequence in the T-arm that form duplex RNA. The T stem of the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) typically includes 2 to 8, preferably 3 to 7, more preferably 4 to 6, base pairs of duplex RNA. In some embodiments, the T stem is 3, 4, or 5 base pairs of duplex RNA.

The T stem can be high in G-C content. For example, in some embodiments, the G-C content is 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the nucleotides of the T stem.

The two segments of the tRNA that form the T stem typically form a RNA duplex by Waston-Crick base pairing. The two segments of the tRNA that form the T stem are typically substantially complementary. Preferably, the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the acceptor stem bind to or hybridize to each other under conditions of high stringency and specificity. In some embodiments, 5′ segment of the tRNA that forms the T stem is equal to or greater than 50% complementary to the 3′ segment of the tRNA that forms the T stem. In some embodiments the 5′ segment of the tRNA that forms the T stem is 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more complementary to the 3′ sequence of the tRNA that forms the T stem. In some embodiments the 5′ and 3′ sequences of the tRNA that form the T stem are 100% complementary.

The T loop refers to the part of the T-arm that does not form duplex RNA. In some embodiments the T-loop includes thymidine, pseudouridine, residues, or combinations thereof. The T-loop can have between 3 and 15 nucleotides inclusive, preferably between 4 and 12 nucleotides inclusive. In some embodiments the D-loop has 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 nucleotides.

f. Linker Nucleotides

The five arms of the tRNA can be linked directly, or can be separated by one or more linker or spacer nucleotides to ensure the tRNA assumes the proper secondary structure. For example, the acceptor arm and the D-arm can separated by 0, 1, 2, 3, or more nucleotides; the D-arm and the anticodon arm can be separated by 0, 1, 2, 3, or more nucleotides; the anticodon arm and the variable arm can be separated by 0, 1, 2, 3, or more nucleotides; the variable arm and the T-arm can be separated by 0, 1, 2, 3, or more nucleotides; and the T-arm and the acceptor arm can be separated by 0, 1, 2, 3, or more nucleotides.

B. mRNA and Polypeptides of Interest

As discussed in more detail below, the tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein can be used in combination with an mRNA to manufacture selenocysteine containing polypeptides and proteins. The mRNA does not require, and preferably does not include, a SECIS element. The mRNA, which encodes a polypeptide of interest, includes one or more codons that is recognized by the anticodon of the Sec-tRNA^(Sec), referred to herein as an “tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon,” such that tRNA catalyzes the attachment of a selenocysteine amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain during translation.

For example, if the tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon is a stop codon, such as UGA, the mRNA will contain at least one UGA codon where a selenocysteine will be added to the growing polypeptide chain during translation. The tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon can be added to or inserted into any mRNA to add a codon encoding selenocysteine at any desired location in the amino acid sequence. The tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon can be substituted for any existing codon in the mRNA sequence so that any one or more amino acids from a reference polypeptide sequence is substituted with selenocysteine during translation. For example, as discussed in more detail below, in some embodiments, one or more codons encoding cysteine in a reference sequence are substituted with a tRNA^(Sec) recognition sequence so that the one or more cysteines are replaced with selenocysteine during translation.

Various types of mutagenesis can be used to modify the sequence of a nucleic acid encoding the mRNA of interest to generate the tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon. They include but are not limited to site-directed, random point mutagenesis, homologous recombination (DNA shuffling), mutagenesis using uracil containing templates, oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, phosphorothioate-modified DNA mutagenesis, and mutagenesis using gapped duplex DNA or the like. Additional suitable methods include point mismatch repair, mutagenesis using repair-deficient host strains, restriction-selection and restriction-purification, deletion mutagenesis, mutagenesis by total gene synthesis and double-strand break repair.

In some embodiments, the coding sequence, excluding the tRNA^(Sec) recognition site as discussed above, is further altered for optimal expression (also referred to herein as “codon optimized”) in an expression system of interest. Methods for modifying coding sequences to achieve optimal expression are known in the art.

C. Isolated Nucleic Acid Molecules

tRNA^(Sec) and nucleic acids encoding tRNA^(Sec) are disclosed. Also disclosed are mRNAs, cDNAs and other nucleic acids encoding proteins of interest that are engineered such that a tRNA^(Sec), such as the tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein, “reads” at least one codon of the mRNA during translation of the protein encoded by the mRNA. As used herein, “isolated nucleic acid” refers to a nucleic acid that is separated from other nucleic acid molecules that are present in a genome, including nucleic acids that normally flank one or both sides of the nucleic acid in the genome. The term “isolated” as used herein with respect to nucleic acids also includes the combination with any non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid sequence, since such non-naturally-occurring sequences are not found in nature and do not have immediately contiguous sequences in a naturally-occurring genome.

An isolated nucleic acid can be, for example, a DNA molecule or an RNA molecule, provided one of the nucleic acid sequences normally found immediately flanking that DNA molecule in a naturally-occurring genome is removed or absent. Thus, an isolated nucleic acid includes, without limitation, a DNA molecule or RNA molecule that exists as a separate molecule independent of other sequences (e.g., a chemically synthesized nucleic acid, or a cDNA, or RNA, or genomic DNA fragment produced by PCR or restriction endonuclease treatment), as well as recombinant DNA that is incorporated into a vector, an autonomously replicating plasmid, a virus (e.g., a retrovirus, lentivirus, adenovirus, or herpes virus), or into the genomic DNA of a prokaryote or eukaryote. In addition, an isolated nucleic acid can include an engineered nucleic acid such as a recombinant DNA molecule or RNA molecule that is part of a hybrid or fusion nucleic acid. A nucleic acid existing among hundreds to millions of other nucleic acids within, for example, a cDNA library or a genomic library, or a gel slice containing a genomic DNA restriction digest, is not to be considered an isolated nucleic acid.

Nucleic acids encoding the tRNA^(Sec) and mRNA disclosed herein may be optimized for expression in the expression host of choice. In the case of nucleic acids encoding expressed polypeptides, codons may be substituted with alternative codons encoding the same amino acid to account for differences in codon usage between the organism from which the nucleic acid sequence is derived and the expression host. In this manner, the nucleic acids may be synthesized using expression host-preferred codons.

Nucleic acids can be in sense or antisense orientation, or can be complementary to a reference sequence, for example, a sequence encoding the disclosed tRNA^(Sec) and mRNA. Nucleic acids can be DNA, RNA, nucleic acid analogs, or combinations thereof. Nucleic acid analogs can be modified at the base moiety, sugar moiety, or phosphate backbone. Such modification can improve, for example, stability, hybridization, or solubility of the nucleic acid. Modifications at the base moiety can include deoxyuridine for deoxythymidine, and 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine or 5-bromo-2′-deoxycytidine for deoxycytidine. Modifications of the sugar moiety can include modification of the 2′ hydroxyl of the ribose sugar to form 2′-O-methyl or 2′-O-allyl sugars. The deoxyribose phosphate backbone can be modified to produce morpholino nucleic acids, in which each base moiety is linked to a six membered, morpholino ring, or peptide nucleic acids, in which the deoxyphosphate backbone is replaced by a pseudopeptide backbone and the four bases are retained. See, for example, Summerton and Weller (1997) Antisense Nucleic Acid Drug Dev. 7:187-195; and Hyrup et al. (1996) Bioorgan. Med. Chem. 4:5-23. In addition, the deoxyphosphate backbone can be replaced with, for example, a phosphorothioate or phosphorodithioate backbone, a phosphoroamidite, or an alkyl phosphotriester backbone.

D. Methods for Producing Isolated Nucleic Acid Molecules

Isolated nucleic acid molecules can be produced by standard techniques, including, without limitation, common molecular cloning and chemical nucleic acid synthesis techniques. For example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques can be used to obtain an isolated nucleic acid encoding a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec). PCR is a technique in which target nucleic acids are enzymatically amplified. Typically, sequence information from the ends of the region of interest or beyond can be employed to design oligonucleotide primers that are identical in sequence to opposite strands of the template to be amplified. PCR can be used to amplify specific sequences from DNA as well as RNA, including sequences from total genomic DNA or total cellular RNA. Primers typically are 14 to 40 nucleotides in length, but can range from 10 nucleotides to hundreds of nucleotides in length. General PCR techniques are described, for example in PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, ed. by Dieffenbach and Dveksler, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1995.

When using RNA as a source of template, reverse transcriptase can be used to synthesize a complementary DNA (cDNA) strand. Ligase chain reaction, strand displacement amplification, self-sustained sequence replication or nucleic acid sequence-based amplification also can be used to obtain isolated nucleic acids. See, for example, Lewis (1992) Genetic Engineering News 12:1; Guatelli et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1874-1878; and Weiss (1991) Science 254:1292-1293.

Isolated nucleic acids can be chemically synthesized, either as a single nucleic acid molecule or as a series of oligonucleotides (e.g., using phosphoramidite technology for automated DNA synthesis in the 3′ to 5′ direction). For example, one or more pairs of long oligonucleotides (e.g., >100 nucleotides) can be synthesized that contain the desired sequence, with each pair containing a short segment of complementarity (e.g., about 15 nucleotides) such that a duplex is formed when the oligonucleotide pair is annealed. DNA polymerase can be used to extend the oligonucleotides, resulting in a single, double-stranded nucleic acid molecule per oligonucleotide pair, which then can be ligated into a vector. Isolated nucleic acids can also obtained by mutagenesis. Nucleic acids can be mutated using standard techniques, including oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis and/or site-directed mutagenesis through PCR. See, Short Protocols in Molecular Biology. Chapter 8, Green Publishing Associates and John Wiley & Sons, edited by Ausubel et al, 1992. Examples of nucleic acid amino acid positions relative to a reference sequence that can be modified include those described herein.

E. Vectors and Host Cells

Vectors encoding tRNA^(Sec) and polypeptides manufactured using the tRNA^(Sec) as well as other components of the translation system including but not limited to SerRS, EF-Tu, SelA, SelD, PSTK, and SepSecS are also provided. Nucleic acids, such as those described above, can be inserted into vectors for expression in cells. As used herein, a “vector” is a replicon, such as a plasmid, phage, virus or cosmid, into which another DNA segment may be inserted so as to bring about the replication of the inserted segment. Vectors can be expression vectors. An “expression vector” is a vector that includes one or more expression control sequences, and an “expression control sequence” is a DNA sequence that controls and regulates the transcription and/or translation of another DNA sequence.

Nucleic acids in vectors can be operably linked to one or more expression control sequences. Operably linked means the disclosed sequences are incorporated into a genetic construct so that expression control sequences effectively control expression of a sequence of interest. Examples of expression control sequences include promoters, enhancers, and transcription terminating regions. A promoter is an expression control sequence composed of a region of a DNA molecule, typically within 100 nucleotides upstream of the point at which transcription starts (generally near the initiation site for RNA polymerase II).

A “promoter” as used herein is a DNA regulatory region capable of initiating transcription of a gene of interest. Some promoters are “constitutive,” and direct transcription in the absence of regulatory influences. Some promoters are “tissue specific,” and initiate transcription exclusively or selectively in one or a few tissue types. Some promoters are “inducible,” and achieve gene transcription under the influence of an inducer. Induction can occur, e.g., as the result of a physiologic response, a response to outside signals, or as the result of artificial manipulation. Some promoters respond to the presence of tetracycline; “rtTA” is a reverse tetracycline controlled transactivator. Such promoters are well known to those of skill in the art.

To bring a coding sequence under the control of a promoter, it is advantageous to position the translation initiation site of the translational reading frame of the polypeptide between one and about fifty nucleotides downstream of the promoter. Enhancers provide expression specificity in terms of time, location, and level. Unlike promoters, enhancers can function when located at various distances from the transcription site. An enhancer also can be located downstream from the transcription initiation site. A coding sequence is “operably linked” and “under the control” of expression control sequences in a cell when RNA polymerase is able to transcribe the coding sequence into mRNA, which then can be translated into the protein encoded by the coding sequence.

Likewise, although tRNA^(Sec) sequences do not encode a protein, control sequence can be operably linked to a sequence encoding a tRNA^(Sec), to control expression of the tRNA^(Sec) in a host cell. Methods of recombinant expression of tRNA from vectors is known in the art, see for example, Ponchon and Dardel, Nature Methods, 4(7):571-6 (2007); Masson and Miller, J. H., Gene, 47:179-183 (1986); Meinnel, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 16:8095-6 (1988); Tisné, et al., RNA, 6:1403-1412 (2000).

F. Host Cells

Host cell including the nucleic acids disclosed herein are also provided. Prokaryotes useful as host cells include, but are not limited to, gram negative or gram positive organisms such as E. coli or Bacilli. In a prokaryotic host cell, a polypeptide may include an N-terminal methionine residue to facilitate expression of the recombinant polypeptide in the prokaryotic host cell. The N-terminal Met may be cleaved from the expressed recombinant polypeptide. Promoter sequences commonly used for recombinant prokaryotic host cell expression vectors include lactamase and the lactose promoter system.

Expression vectors for use in prokaryotic host cells generally comprise one or more phenotypic selectable marker genes. A phenotypic selectable marker gene is, for example, a gene encoding a protein that confers antibiotic resistance or that supplies an autotrophic requirement. Examples of useful expression vectors for prokaryotic host cells include those derived from commercially available plasmids such as the cloning vector pBR322 (ATCC 37017). pBR322 contains genes for ampicillin and tetracycline resistance and thus provides simple means for identifying transformed cells. To construct an expression vector using pBR322, an appropriate promoter and a DNA sequence are inserted into the pBR322 vector. Other commercially available vectors include, for example, T7 expression vectors from Invitrogen, pET vectors from Novagen and pALTER® vectors and PinPoint® vectors from Promega Corporation.

In a prokaryotic host cell, a polypeptide may include an N-terminal methionine residue to facilitate expression of the recombinant polypeptide in the prokaryotic host cell. The N-terminal Met may be cleaved from the expressed recombinant polypeptide. Promoter sequences commonly used for recombinant prokaryotic host cell expression vectors include lactamase and the lactose promoter system.

In some embodiments, the host cells are E. coli. The E. coli strain can be a selA, selB, selC, deletion strain, or combinations thereof. For example, the E. coli can be a selA, selB, and selC deletion strain, or a selB and selC deletion strain. Examples of suitable E. coli strains include, but are not limited to, MH5 and ME6.

Yeasts useful as host cells include, but are not limited to, those from the genus Saccharomyces, Pichia, K. Actinomycetes and Kluyveromyces.

Yeast vectors will often contain an origin of replication sequence, an autonomously replicating sequence (ARS), a promoter region, sequences for polyadenylation, sequences for transcription termination, and a selectable marker gene. Suitable promoter sequences for yeast vectors include, among others, promoters for metallothionein, 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (Hitzeman et al., J. Biol. Chem. 255:2073, (1980)) or other glycolytic enzymes (Holland et al., Biochem. 17:4900, (1978)) such as enolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, hexokinase, pyruvate decarboxylase, phosphofructokinase, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, 3-phosphoglycerate mutase, pyruvate kinase, triosephosphate isomerase, phosphoglucose isomerase, and glucokinase. Other suitable vectors and promoters for use in yeast expression are further described in Fleer et al., Gene, 107:285-195 (1991), in Li, et al., Lett Appl Microbiol. 40(5):347-52 (2005), Jansen, et al., Gene 344:43-51 (2005) and Daly and Hearn, J. Mol. Recognit. 18(2):119-38 (2005). A yeast promoter is, for example, the ADH1 promoter (Ruohonen, et al., J Biotechnol. 1995 May 1; 39(3):193-203), or a constitutively active version thereof (e.g., the first 700 bp). Some embodiments include a terminator, such as the rp141b terminator resulted in the highest GFP expression out of over 5300 yeast promoters tested (Yamaishi, et al., ACS Synth. Biol., 2013, 2 (6), pp 337-347). Other suitable promoters, terminators, and vectors for yeast and yeast transformation protocols are well known in the art.

In some embodiments, the host cells are eukaryotic cells. For example, mammalian and insect host cell culture systems well known in the art can also be employed to express non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) and mRNA for producing proteins or polypeptides containing selenocysteine. Commonly used promoter sequences and enhancer sequences are derived from Polyoma virus, Adenovirus 2, Simian Virus 40 (SV40), and human cytomegalovirus. DNA sequences derived from the SV40 viral genome may be used to provide other genetic elements for expression of a structural gene sequence in a mammalian host cell, e.g., SV40 origin, early and late promoter, enhancer, splice, and polyadenylation sites. Viral early and late promoters are particularly useful because both are easily obtained from a viral genome as a fragment which may also contain a viral origin of replication. Exemplary expression vectors for use in mammalian host cells are well known in the art.

Mammalian or insect host cell culture systems well known in the art can also be employed to express ribosomes (or a ribosomal rRNA thereof), tRNAs, synthetases or a combination thereof for producing proteins or polypeptides containing one or more dipeptides, non-standard-, non-natural-, or non-α-amino acids. Commonly used promoter sequences and enhancer sequences are derived from Polyoma virus, Adenovirus 2, Simian Virus 40 (SV40), and human cytomegalovirus. DNA sequences derived from the SV40 viral genome may be used to provide other genetic elements for expression of a structural gene sequence in a mammalian host cell, e.g., SV40 origin, early and late promoter, enhancer, splice, and polyadenylation sites. Viral early and late promoters are particularly useful because both are easily obtained from a viral genome as a fragment which may also contain a viral origin of replication. Exemplary expression vectors for use in mammalian host cells are well known in the art.

The host organism can be a genomically recoded organism “GRO.” Typically, the GRO is a bacterial strain, for example, an E. coli bacterial strain, wherein a codon has been replaced by a synonymous codon. Because there are 64 possible 3-base codons, but only 20 canonical amino acids (plus stop codons), some amino acids are coded for by 2, 3, 4, or 6 different codons (referred to herein as “synonymous codons”). In a GRO, most or all of the iterations of a particular codon are replaced with a synonymous codon. The precursor strain of the GRO is recoded such that at a least one codon is completely absent from the genome. Removal of a codon from the precursor GRO allows reintroduction of the deleted codon in, for example, a heterologous mRNA of interest. As discussed in more detail below, the reintroduced codon is typically dedicated to a non-standard amino acid, which in the presence of the appropriate translation machinery, can be incorporated in the nascent peptide chain during translation of the mRNA.

Different organisms often show particular preferences for one of the several codons that encode the same amino acid, and some codons are considered rare or infrequent. Preferably, the replaced codon is one that is rare or infrequent in the genome. The replaced codon can be one that codes for an amino acid (i.e., a sense codon) or a translation termination codon (i.e., a stop codon). GRO that are suitable for use as host or parental strains for the disclosed systems and methods are known in the art, or can be constructed using known methods. See, for example, Isaacs, et al., Science, 333, 348-53 (2011), Lajoie, et al., Science 342, 357-60 (2013), Lajoie, et al., Science, 342, 361-363 (2013).

Preferably, the replaced codon is one that codes for a rare stop codon. In a particular embodiment, the GRO is one in which all instances of the UAG (TAG) codon have been removed and replaced by another stop codon (e.g., TAA, TGA), and preferably wherein release factor 1 (RF1; terminates translation at UAG and UAA) has also been deleted, eliminating translational termination at UAG codons (Lajoie, et al., Science 342, 357-60 (2013)). In a particular embodiment, the host or precursor GRO is C321.Δ A [321 UAG→UAA conversions and deletion of prfA (encodes RF1)] (genome sequence at GenBank accession CP006698). This GRO allows the reintroduction of UAG codons in a heterologous mRNA, along with orthogonal translation machinery (i.e., aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) and tRNAs as discussed in more detail below), to permit efficient and site specific incorporation of non-standard amino acids into protein encoded by the recoded gene of interest. That is, UAG has been transformed from a nonsense codon (terminates translation) to a sense codon (incorporates amino acid of choice), provided the appropriate translation machinery is present. UAG is a preferred codon for recoding because it is the rarest codon in Escherichia coli MG1655 (321 known instances) and a rich collection of translation machinery capable of incorporating non-standard amino acids has been developed for UAG (Liu and Schultz, Annu. Rev. Biochem., 79:413-44 (2010)).

Stop codons include TAG (UAG), TAA (UAA), and TGA (UGA). Although recoding to UAG (TAG) is discussed in more detail above, it will be appreciated that either of the other stop codons (or any sense codon) can be recoded using the same strategy. Accordingly, in some embodiments, a sense codon is reassigned, e.g., AGG or AGA to CGG, CGA, CGC, or CGG (arginine), e.g., as the principles can be extended to any set of synonymous or even non-synonymous codons, that are coding or non-coding. Similarly, the cognate translation machinery can be removed/mutated/deleted to remove natural codon function (UAG-RF1, UGA-RF2). The orthogonal translation system, particularly the antisense codon of the tRNA, can be designed to match the reassigned codon.

GRO can have two, three, or more codons replaced with a synonymous or non-synonymous codon. Such GRO allow for reintroduction of the two, three, or more deleted codons in one or more recoded genes of interest, each dedicated to a different non-standard amino acid. Such GRO can be used in combination with the appropriate orthogonal translation machinery to produce polypeptides having two, three, or more different non-standard amino acids.

Another host cell system for the use of codons containing unnatural bases is E. coli expressing Phaeodactylum tricornutum nucleotide triphosphate transporters as reported (Malyshev, et al., Nature, 509:385-388 (2014)).

III. Methods for Manufacturing Proteins Containing Selenocysteine

A. Expression of Selenocysteine Containing Polypeptides

Generally, the canonical amino acids are charged onto their respective tRNA by their cognate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. The aminoacyl-tRNA is then delivered by EF-Tu to the ribosome (FIG. 1A). In contrast, the endogenous Sec pathway requires several biosynthetic steps. First, tRNA^(Sec) is misacylated to Ser-tRNA^(Sec) by SerRS. While in bacteria Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is directly converted by SelA to Sec-tRNA^(Sec), archaea and eukaryotes employ an additional phosphorylation step by PSTK to form Sep-tRNA^(Sec), which is then converted by SepSecS to the final product Sec-tRNA^(Sec) FIG. 1B. Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is bound by elongation factor SelB and delivered to the ribosome. However, reassignment of the opal codon UGA to a Sec codon is only achieved if SelB also binds to the mRNA SECIS hairpin structure.

The compositions disclosed herein can be used to prepare polypeptides including one or more selenocysteine residues from mRNA that does not contain an SECIS element. The tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein is recognized by SerRS and misacylated to form the intermediate Ser-tRNA^(Sec). Next the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) is converted to Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by SelA in prokaryotic system or hybrid systems, or PSTK and SepSecS in archaeal, eukaryotic, or hybrid systems. Finally, the Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is delivered to the ribosome by EF-Tu, where the anticodon of the Sec-tRNA^(Sec) recognizes the codon engineered to encode a Sec amino acid, and transfers the Sec onto the growing polypeptide chain. Accordingly, the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein are typically recognized by SerRS, or a variant thereof, and when aminoacylated with serine the Ser-tRNA can (1) be a substrate for SelA or a variant thereof; or (2) be a substrate for PSTK and when aminoacylated with phosphorylated serine the Sep-tRNA can serve as a substrate for SepSecS or a variant thereof, and (3) when aminoacylated, the non-naturally occurring Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is recognized by EF-Tu.

As discussed in more detail below, recombinant proteins including selenocysteine can be prepared using in vitro transcription/translation or in vivo expression systems. The system can be of prokaryotic, eukaryotic, or archaeal origin or combinations thereof. For example, the system can be hybrid system including selenocysteine biogenesis and translation factors from prokaryotic, eukaryotic, archaeal origin, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the system is an in vivo prokaryotic expression including an E. coli strain in which the endogenous genes encoding selB, selC, or selA, selB, selC are deleted or mutated to reduce or eliminate expression of endogenous SelA, SelB, SelC or combinations thereof. The selB, selC, or selA, selB, selC mutant strains can be engineered to express a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec), as well as a PSTK and a SepSecS. In some embodiments recombinant SelA is expressed. The PSTK or SepSecS can of eukaryotic or archaeal origin, or a variant thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the PSTK is a M. maripaludis PSTK and the SepSecS is a M. jannaschii SepSecS.

In some embodiments, SelA, PSTK and SepSecS are all expressed in the expression system.

SelD refers to selenide, water dikinase, which synthesizes selenophosphate utilized by SelA from selenide and ATP.

An exemplary protein sequence for E. coli SelD is:

(SEQ ID NO: 86) MSENSIRLTQYSHGAGCGCKISPKVLETILHSEQAKFVDPNLLVG NETRDDAAVYDLGNGTSVISTTDFFMPIVDNPFDFGRIAATNAIS DIFAMGGKPIMAIAILGWPINKLSPEIAREVTEGGRYACRQAGIA LAGGHSIDAPEPIFGLAVTGIVPTERVKKNSTAQAGCKLFLTKPL GIGVLTTAEKKSLLKPEHQGLATEVMCRMNIAGASFANIEGVKAM TDVTGFGLLGHLSEMCQGAGVQARVDYEAIPKLPGVEEYIKLGAV PGGTERNFASYGHLMGEMPREVRDLLCDPQTSGGLLLAVMPEAEN EVKATAAEFGIELTAIGELVPARGGRAMVEIR

Other organisms also encode a SelD. Thus, in other embodiments, the SelD is not from E. coli. Thus, in these embodiments, an alternative SelD is utilized for recombinant selenoprotein preparation. Exemplary alternative SelD proteins include, but are not limited to, SelD from Aeromonas salmonicida.

An amino acid sequence for Aeromonas salmonicida SelD is

(SEQ ID NO: 87) MSSIRLTQYSHGAGCGCKISPKVLDTILKSQIPGFDDPTLVVGNS SKDDAAVVDIGNGQGIVSTTDFFMPIVDDPFTFGRIAATNAISDI YAMGGKPIVAIAILGWPINTLAPEVAQQVIDGGRQVCHEAGISLA GGHSIDAPEPIFGLAVTGIVPLNAIKQNDTAQAGDILYLTKPLGI GILTTAQKKGKLKPEHEQLAPNAMCTLNKIGQRFAELPGVHAMTD VTGFGLAGHLLEMCEGSGVCATLDFKALPLLDEVDYYLSEGCVPG GTLRNFDSYGAKLGAMDERTRNIMCDPQTSGGLLVAVGKESEAEL LAIATQAGLTLSPIGQLKAYTGNQFIEVIQ

A nucleic acid sequence encoding Aeromonas salmonicida SelD (cloned from the Aeromonas salmonicida genome. The AUG start codon was changed to GUG)

(SEQ ID NO: 88) GTGTCTTCCATTCGTCTGACCCAATACAGCCACGGGGCTGGCTGC GGCTGCAAAATTTCTCCCAAGGTGCTCGACACCATTCTCAAGAGC CAGATCCCGGGCTTTGACGACCCGACCCTGGTGGTTGGCAACAGC AGCAAGGATGACGCGGCCGTGGTCGATATCGGCAACGGTCAGGGC ATTGTTTCCACCACCGACTTCTTCATGCCCATCGTCGATGATCCC TTTACCTTTGGCCGCATCGCGGCCACCAACGCCATCAGCGACATC TACGCCATGGGCGGCAAGCCCATCGTTGCCATTGCCATCCTTGGC TGGCCCATCAACACCCTAGCCCCGGAAGTGGCCCAGCAGGTGATA GATGGCGGCCGCCAGGTGTGCCATGAAGCGGGCATATCCTTGGCT GGCGGCCACAGTATCGATGCCCCCGAGCCCATCTTCGGTCTTGCT GTGACCGGTATAGTGCCGCTCAATGCCATCAAGCAGAACGACACG GCCCAGGCGGGTGACATCCTCTACCTGACCAAGCCCCTCGGTATC GGCATCCTCACCACGGCCCAGAAGAAGGGCAAATTGAAGCCAGAG CATGAGCAGCTGGCCCCCAACGCCATGTGCACCCTCAACAAGATT GGCCAGCGCTTTGCCGAACTGCCCGGCGTGCACGCCATGACGGAT GTGACCGGGTTTGGCCTGGCGGGACACCTGCTTGAGATGTGCGAA GGCTCAGGGGTGTGTGCCACCCTCGATTTCAAGGCGCTGCCACTG CTCGACGAAGTAGATTACTACCTGTCCGAGGGCTGCGTACCGGGC GGTACCCTGCGCAACTTCGATTCCTATGGCGCCAAGCTCGGTGCC ATGGATGAACGCACCCGCAACATCATGTGCGATCCGCAGACCAGC GGCGGCTTGCTGGTTGCCGTCGGTAAAGAAAGTGAAGCCGAGCTC CTTGCTATCGCGACACAAGCGGGGCTGACCCTCTCCCCCATAGGC CAGCTGAAAGCCTATACCGGAAACCAGTTTATCGAGGTTATCCAA TGA

In some embodiments selenocysteine biogenesis and translation factors are mutated to improve their specificity or activity for tRNA^(Sec). In the recombinant tRNA^(Sec) biosynthetic pathway disclosed herein tRNA^(Sec) is first misacylated to Ser-tRNA^(Sec) by SerRS, and subsequently converted to Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by SelA, or PSTK and SepSecS, or combinations thereof. Accordingly, if the SelA, or PSTK and SepSecS, enzymes are not 100% efficient at converting Ser-tRNA^(Sec) to Sec-tRNA^(Sec), the system may incorporate Sec or Ser at the desired position. Additionally, in some embodiments, recognition of the non-naturally occurring Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by EF-Tu, is less efficient than EF-Tu recognition of other naturally occurring aminoacyl-tRNAs. Mutating the EF-Tu, SerRS, SelA, PSTK, SepSecS, or combinations thereof can improve the efficiency or recognition of the enzyme for the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec), the non-naturally occurring Sec-tRNA^(Sec), or various intermediates thereof. In some embodiment, the EF-Tu, SerRS, SelA, PSTK, SepSecS, SelD or combinations thereof are variants of a naturally occurring protein.

In some embodiments, the variant mRNA can include or consist of replacing of the AUG start codon with GUG or UUG and optionally a UAAUU inserted in front of it. Replacing AUG with GUG or UUG can reduce the expression of the encoded protein. The corresponding DNA sequence encoding the variants are also expressly provided.

It is understood that if the tRNA^(Sec) recognition codon of the mRNA of interest is one of the three mRNA stop codons (UAG, UAA, or UGA) translation of some of the mRNA of interest will terminate at each of the tRNA^(Sec) recognition codons, resulting in a heterogeneous mixture of full-length and truncated proteins. The experimental results presented in the examples below show that allo-tRNA such as allo-tRNA^(UTu) insert a larger number of Sec amino acids into a nascent protein chain than other tRNA^(Sec)including, for example, tRNA^(SecUx). Thus in some embodiments, an allo-tRNA^(Sec) can generate a higher yield (e.g., a higher amount) of the desired protein, particularly when the protein contains multiple Sec residues (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more) compared to other tRNA^(Sec) including, for example, tRNA^(SeUx).

Additionally or alternatively, in some embodiments, the selenocysteine containing protein is expressed in a system that has been modified or mutated to reduce or eliminate expression of one or more translation release factors. A release factor is a protein that allows for the termination of translation by recognizing the termination codon or stop codon in an mRNA sequence. Prokaryotic release factors include RF1, RF2 and RF3; and eukaryotic release factors include eRF1 and eRF3.

Deletion of one or more release factors may result in “read-through” of the intended stop codon. Accordingly, some of recombinant proteins expressed in a system with one or more release factors may include one or more additional amino acids at the C-terminal end of the protein.

Selenoproteins have widely been lost in the fungal kingdom, with the exception of five species recently discovered that have selenoprotein genes along with genes required for Sec biosynthesis (Mariotti et al., Biorxiv, 2018). Despite S. cerevisiae lacking Sec utilizing traits, selenium can accumulate intracellularly at high concentrations, largely in the form of selenomethionine (SeMet). When adding low doses of sodium selenite to medium during early logarithmic growth phase, selenium levels in S. cerevisiae can reach 2354 pg/g (de Leon, et al., J Appl Microbiol 2002, 92, 602-610). However, selenium is toxic to yeast in high concentrations. The trans-sulfuration pathway converts SeMet to Sec, and as a consequence of free Sec production, cysteinyl-tRNA synthetase (CysRS) misincorporates Sec at Cys codons, which causes protein aggregation within the cell (Plateau, et al., Sci Rep 2017, 7, 44761, doi:10.1038/srep44761). In Sec utilizing organisms, Sec is hydrolyzed by selenocysteine lyase to dehydroalanine and selenide, which is the form of selenium used for tRNA-dependent Sec biosynthesis on tRNA^(Sec).

The Examples below show that through metabolic engineering, the Sec biosynthesis pathway can be reconstituted in S. cerevisiae for production of selenoproteins. There are several advantages to using a yeast system. For example, not all selenoproteins can be efficiently synthesized in bacteria, and eukaryotic selenoproteins would lack post-translational modifications when produced in the currently used bacterial systems. Moreover, expression of selenoproteins in S. cerevisiae allows for systems biology studies of interaction networks when implemented in yeast two-hybrid and synthetic genetic array screens.

The design and expression of a functional Cys/Sec-specific reporter and a Sec translation system in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are exemplified in Example 12 below. Suppression of up to two amber codons in replace of important Cys residues in Gal4 indicates that Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is being efficiently produced at high enough levels to incorporate two Sec residues into the same polypeptide, while competing with endogenous translation release factors. In addition to these findings, this work also shows that eukaryotic elongation factor, eEF1α, can bind Sec-tRNA^(Sec) and deliver it to the ribosome in a non-canonical manner that does not require an mRNA structural element (selenocysteine insertion sequence; SECIS) or a specialized elongation factor for Sec (SelB or EFSec) (Squires, et al., IUBMB Life 2008, 60, 232-235, doi:10.1002/iub.38, Donovan, et al., Antioxid Redox Signal 2010, 12, 881-892, doi:10.1089/ars.2009.2878). This work allows for the production of selenoproteins in yeast using Aeromonas pathway components that were used for efficient selenoprotein production in bacteria (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018, 57, 7215-7219, doi:10.1002/anie.201713215). Producing selenoproteins in S. cerevisiae can facilitate systems biology studies of protein-protein interactions and can be a method to cost-effectively produce medically or industrially relevant selenoproteins that require synthesis in a eukaryotic system.

In some embodiments, selenocysteine-protein production in yeast includes expression in yeast of a non-naturally occurring yeast tRNA^(Sec) alone or preferably in combination with a SelA (e.g., AsSelA), and preferably a SelD (e.g., AsSelD) compatible therewith. Typically, the yeast also expresses its own SerRS and eEF1α. In some embodiments, an SCL (e.g., MmSCL) is also expressed.

The protein of interest can be purified from the truncated proteins and other contaminants using standard methods of protein purification as discussed in more detail below.

1. In Vitro Transcription/Translation

In one embodiment, the genes encoding a tRNA^(Sec), mRNA encoding the protein of interest, mRNA encoding EF-Tu, SerRS, SelA, PSTK, SepSecS, SelD or combinations thereof are synthesized in vitro prior to or along with transcription and translation of the protein of interest. The synthesis of protein from a DNA sequence in vitro takes two steps. The first is transcription of an RNA copy and the second is the translation of a protein.

In vitro protein synthesis does not depend on having a polyadenylated mRNA, but if having a poly(A) tail is important for some other purpose a vector may be used that has a stretch of about 100 A residues incorporated into the polylinker region. That way, the poly(A) tail is “built in” by the synthetic method.

Eukaryotic ribosomes read RNAs more efficiently if they have a 5′ methyl guanosine cap. RNA caps can be incorporated by initiation of transcription using a capped base analogue, or adding a cap in a separate in vitro reaction post-transcriptionally.

The use of in vitro translation systems can have advantages over in vivo gene expression when the over-expressed product is toxic to the host cell, when the product is insoluble or forms inclusion bodies, or when the protein undergoes rapid proteolytic degradation by intracellular proteases. Various approaches to in vitro protein synthesis are known in the art and include translation of purified RNA, as well as “linked” and “coupled” transcription:translation. In vitro translation systems can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell-free systems.

Combined transcription/translation systems are available, in which both phage RNA polymerases (such as T7 or SP6) and eukaryotic ribosomes are present. One example of a kit is the TNT® system from Promega Corporation.

Other suitable in vitro transcription/translation systems include, but are not limited to, the rabbit reticulocyte system, the E. coli S-30 transcription-translation system, and the wheat germ based translational system.

2. In Vivo Methods Transcription/Translation

a. Extrachromosomal Expression

Host cells can be genetically engineered (e.g., transformed, transduced or transfected) with the vectors encoding tRNA^(Sec), a nucleic acid encoding the protein of interest, EF-Tu, SerRS, SelA, PSTK, SepSecS, SelD or combinations, which can be, for example, a cloning vector or an expression vector. In some embodiments, two or more of tRNA^(Sec), EF-Tu, SerRS, SelA, PSTK, SepSecS, and SelD are expressed from the same vector.

The vector can be, for example, in the form of a plasmid, a bacterium, a virus, a naked polynucleotide, or a conjugated polynucleotide. The vectors are introduced into cells and/or microorganisms by standard methods including electroporation (From et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 82, 5824 (1985), infection by viral vectors, high velocity ballistic penetration by small particles with the nucleic acid either within the matrix of small beads or particles, or on the surface (Klein et al., Nature 327, 70-73 (1987)). Methods of expressing recombinant proteins in various recombinant expression systems including bacteria, yeast, insect, and mammalian cells are known in the art, see for example Current Protocols in Protein Science (Print ISSN: 1934-3655 Online ISSN: 1934-3663, Last updated January 2012). Plasmids can be high copy number or low copy number plasmids. In some embodiments, a low copy number plasmid generates between about 1 and about 20 copies per cell (e.g., approximately 5-8 copies per cell). In some embodiments, a high copy number plasmid generates at least about 100, 500, 1,000 or more copies per cell (e.g., approximately 100 to about 1,000 copies per cell).

Kits are commercially available for the purification of plasmids from bacteria, (see, e.g., GFX™ Micro Plasmid Prep Kit from GE Healthcare; Strataprep® Plasmid Miniprep Kit and StrataPrep® EF Plasmid Midiprep Kit from Stratagene; GenElute™ HP Plasmid Midiprep and Maxiprep Kits from Sigma-Aldrich, and, Qiagen plasmid prep kits and QIAfilter™ its from Qiagen). The isolated and purified plasmids are then further manipulated to produce other plasmids, used to transfect cells or incorporated into related vectors to infect organisms. Typical vectors contain transcription and translation terminators, transcription and translation initiation sequences, and promoters useful for regulation of the expression of the particular target nucleic acid. The vectors optionally comprise generic expression cassettes containing at least one independent terminator sequence, sequences permitting replication of the cassette in eukaryotes, or prokaryotes, or both, (e.g., shuttle vectors) and selection markers for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.

Useful prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems for expressing and producing polypeptides are well known in the art include, for example, Escherichia coli strains such as BL-21, and cultured mammalian cells such as CHO cells.

In eukaryotic host cells, a number of viral-based expression systems can be utilized to express non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) and mRNA for producing proteins or polypeptides containing selenocysteine. Viral based expression systems are well known in the art and include, but are not limited to, baculoviral, SV40, retroviral, or vaccinia based viral vectors.

Mammalian cell lines that stably express tRNA and proteins can be produced using expression vectors with appropriate control elements and a selectable marker. For example, the eukaryotic expression vectors pCR3.1 (Invitrogen Life Technologies) and p91023(B) (see Wong et al. (1985) Science 228:810-815) are suitable for expression of recombinant proteins in, for example, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, COS-1 cells, human embryonic kidney 293 cells, NIH3T3 cells, BHK21 cells, MDCK cells, and human vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC). Additional suitable expression systems include the GS Gene Expression System™ available through Lonza Group Ltd.

U6 and H1 are exemplary promoters that can be used for expressing bacterial tRNA in mammalian cells.

Following introduction of an expression vector by electroporation, lipofection, calcium phosphate, or calcium chloride co-precipitation, DEAE dextran, or other suitable transfection method, stable cell lines can be selected (e.g., by metabolic selection, or antibiotic resistance to G418, kanamycin, or hygromycin or by metabolic selection using the Glutamine Synthetase-NSO system). The transfected cells can be cultured such that the polypeptide of interest is expressed, and the polypeptide can be recovered from, for example, the cell culture supernatant or from lysed cells.

b. Expression by Genomic Integration

Methods of engineering a microorganism or cell line to incorporate a nucleic acid sequence into its genome are known in the art. Any one or more of tRNA^(Sec), EF-Tu, SerRS, SelA, PSTK, SepSecS, SelD or combinations can be expressed from one or more genomic copies. For example, cloning vectors expressing a transposase and containing a nucleic acid sequence of interest between inverted repeats transposable by the transposase can be used to clone the stably insert the gene of interest into a bacterial genome (Barry, Gene, 71:75-84 (1980)). Stably insertion can be obtained using elements derived from transposons including, but not limited to Tn7 (Drahos, et al., Bio/Tech. 4:439-444 (1986)), Tn9 (Joseph-Liauzun, et al., Gene, 85:83-89 (1989)), Tn10 (Way, et al., Gene, 32:369-379 (1984)), and Tn5 (Berg, In Mobile DNA. (Berg, et al., Ed.), pp. 185-210 and 879-926. Washington, D.C. (1989)). Additional methods for inserting heterologous nucleic acid sequences in E. coli and other gram-negative bacteria include use of specialized lambda phage cloning vectors that can exist stably in the lysogenic state (Silhavy, et al., Experiments with gene fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1984)), homologous recombination (Raibaud, et al., Gene, 29:231-241 (1984)), and transposition (Grinter, et al., Gene, 21:133-143 (1983), and Herrero, et al., J. Bacteriology, 172(11):6557-6567 (1990)).

Methods of engineering other microorganisms or cell lines to incorporate a nucleic acid sequence into its genome are also known in the art. Nucleic acids that are delivered to cells which are to be integrated into the host cell genome can contain integration sequences. These sequences are often viral related sequences, particularly when viral based systems are used. These viral integration systems can also be incorporated into nucleic acids which are to be delivered using a non-nucleic acid based system of deliver, such as a liposome, so that the nucleic acid contained in the delivery system can become integrated into the host genome. Techniques for integration of genetic material into a host genome are also known and include, for example, systems designed to promote homologous recombination with the host genome. These systems typically rely on sequence flanking the nucleic acid to be expressed that has enough homology with a target sequence within the host cell genome that recombination between the vector nucleic acid and the target nucleic acid takes place, causing the delivered nucleic acid to be integrated into the host genome. These systems and the methods needed to promote homologous recombination are known to those of skill in the art.

For example, cloning vectors expressing a transposase and containing a nucleic acid sequence of interest between inverted repeats transposable by the transposase can be used to clone the stably insert the gene of interest into a bacterial genome (Barry, Gene, 71:75-84 (1980)). Stably insertion can be obtained using elements derived from transposons including, but not limited to Tn7 (Drahos, et al., Bio/Tech. 4:439-444 (1986)), Tn9 (Joseph-Liauzun, et al., Gene, 85:83-89 (1989)), Tn10 (Way, et al., Gene, 32:369-379 (1984)), and Tn5 (Berg, In Mobile DNA. (Berg, et al., Ed.), pp. 185-210 and 879-926. Washington, D.C. (1989)). Additional methods for inserting heterologous nucleic acid sequences in E. coli and other gram-negative bacteria include use of specialized lambda phage cloning vectors that can exist stably in the lysogenic state (Silhavy, et al., Experiments with gene fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1984)), homologous recombination (Raibaud, et al., Gene, 29:231-241 (1984)), and transposition (Grinter, et al., Gene, 21:133-143 (1983), and Herrero, et al., J. Bacteriology, 172(11):6557-6567 (1990)).

Integrative plasmids can be used to incorporate nucleic acid sequences into yeast chromosomes. See for example, Taxis and Knop, Bio/Tech., 40(1):73-78 (2006), and Hoslot and Gaillardin, Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering of Yeasts. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Fla. (1992).

Methods of incorporating nucleic acid sequence into the genomes of mammalian lines are also well known in the art using, for example, engineered retroviruses such lentiviruses.

B. Purification of Selenocysteine Containing Polypeptides

Selenocysteine containing polypeptides can be isolated using, for example, chromatographic methods such as affinity chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, DEAE ion exchange, gel filtration, and hydroxylapatite chromatography. In some embodiments, selenocysteine containing polypeptides can be engineered to contain an additional domain containing amino acid sequence that allows the polypeptides to be captured onto an affinity matrix. For example, an Fc-containing polypeptide in a cell culture supernatant or a cytoplasmic extract can be isolated using a protein A column. In addition, a tag such as c-myc, hemagglutinin, polyhistidine, or Flag™ (Kodak) can be used to aid polypeptide purification. Such tags can be inserted anywhere within the polypeptide, including at either the carboxyl or amino terminus. Other fusions that can be useful include enzymes that aid in the detection of the polypeptide, such as alkaline phosphatase. Immunoaffinity chromatography also can be used to purify selenocysteine containing polypeptides. Selenocysteine containing polypeptides can additionally be engineered to contain a secretory signal (if there is not a secretory signal already present) that causes the protein to be secreted by the cells in which it is produced. The secreted proteins can then conveniently be isolated from the cell media.

In some embodiments, selenocysteine containing polypeptides are isolated using activated thiol SEPHAROSE®, for example, Activated Thiol SEPHAROSE® 4B. As discussed above, in the recombinant tRNA^(Sec) biosynthetic pathway disclosed herein non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is first misacylated to a non-naturally occurring Ser-tRNA^(Sec) by SerRS, and subsequently converted to Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by SelA, or PSTK and SepSecS, or combinations thereof. Accordingly, if the SelA, or PSTK and SepSecS, enzymes are not 100% efficient at converting Ser-tRNA^(Sec) to Sec-tRNA^(Sec), the system may incorporate Sec or Ser at the desired position, leading to a heterogeneous mixture of proteins. Activated thiol SEPHAROSE® can be incorporated into the protein purification process to purify Sec containing proteins from the Ser containing contaminants.

IV. Methods of Using Selenocysteine Containing Polypeptide

The compositions and methods disclosed herein can be used to manufacture polypeptides and proteins with one or more selenocysteine residues. In some embodiments, the mRNA encodes a polypeptide that is a naturally occurring selenocysteine containing polypeptide. In some embodiments, the mRNA encodes a polypeptide that is not a naturally occurring selenocysteine containing polypeptide. A nucleic acid sequence can include a codon that is recognized by the anticodon of a tRNA^(Sec) disclosed herein, for example a nucleic acid encoding a naturally occurring selenocysteine containing protein, or can be modified to include a codon recognized by the anticodon of a tRNA^(Sec). The nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide can also be codon optimized for expression in the desired recombinant expression system. The nucleic acid can be expressed from a vector or incorporated into the genome of the desired expression system.

A. Recombinant Selenocysteine Containing Peptides—Naturally Occurring

The disclosed compositions and methods can be used for recombinant expression of naturally occurring selenocysteine containing peptides, or variants thereof. Selenoproteins exist in all major forms of life, including, eukaryotes, bacteria and archaea. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the mRNA of interest is an mRNA encoding a selenocysteine containing peptide from an eukaryote, a bacteria, or an archaea. The human genome encodes at least 25 naturally occurring selenocysteine containing peptides (Kryukov, et al, Science, 300:1439-1443 (2003)). Therefore, in some embodiments the mRNA encodes a iodothyronine deiodinase such as DIO1, DIO2, DIO3; a glutathione peroxidase such as GPX1, GPX2, GPX3, GPX4, or GPX6; a selenoprotein such as SelH, Sell, SelK, SelM, SelN, SelO, SelP, SeR, SeS, SelT, SelV, SelW, or Sel15; selenophosphate synthetase 2 (SPS2); or a thioredoxin reductase such as TXNRD1, TXNRD2, or TXNRD3.

Conditions to be Treated

In some embodiments, recombinant selenocysteine containing polypeptides prepared according to the claimed methods are administered to a subject in an effective amount to treat a disease, or one or more symptoms thereof. As discussed in Riaz and Mehmood, JPMI, 26(02):120-133 (2012) and Tapiero, et al., Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 57:134-144 (2003), many health effects of low selenium are thought to be due to lack of one or more specific selenocysteine containing proteins. For example, reduction or loss of one or more selenocysteine containing protein in a subject can be associated with increased oxidative stress in the subject. Accordingly, a recombinant selenocysteine containing protein can be administered to subject in an effective amount to increase antioxidant activity, or reduce oxidative stress in the subject. In some embodiments, the recombinant selenocysteine containing protein can be used to treat or prevent an age-related disorder, asthma, diabetes, an infectious disease, a cardiovascular disorder, a cancer, male infertility, pre-eclampsia, a gastrointestinal disorder, thyroid metabolism, or another diseases or condition associated with reduced levels or activity of selenocysteine containing proteins.

B. Recombinant Selenocysteine Containing Peptides—Non-Naturally Occurring

The disclosed compositions and methods can also be used for producing by recombinant expression a selenocysteine containing polypeptide variant of any polypeptide that does not naturally contain selenocysteine.

1. Insertion of Selenocysteine

One or more selenocysteines can be added to the beginning, end, and/or inserted into a polypeptide that does not typically have a selenocysteine. Adding one or more selenocysteines can change the biochemical and functional properties of the protein, for example, change the redox potential of the protein, increase the half-life of the protein, increase the stability or resistance to degradation, increase the activity of the protein (such as enzymatic activity), alter the pharmacokinetics of the protein, alter the binding affinity (such as the binding affinity of an antibody to antigen or ligand to receptor), change the folding properties of the protein, induce new epitopes onto the protein, or tag the protein for purification.

In some embodiments, the one or more selenocysteines changes the biochemical properties of the protein so it can be easily purified after recombinant expression. In some embodiments, selenocysteine can be added to a protein and used as a purification tag. For example, activated thiol SEPHAROSE®, or an equivalent thereof, can be incorporated into the protein purification process to purify Sec containing proteins from contaminants.

2. Substitution with Selenocysteine

In some embodiments, selenocysteine is substitute for one or more naturally occurring cysteines.

Reversible oxidation of thiols to disulfides or sulfenic acid residues controls biological functions in at least three general ways, by chemically altering active site cysteines, by altering macromolecular interactions, and by regulating activity through modification of allosteric Cys (reviewed in Jones, Am. J. Physiol., 295(4):C849-868 (2008)). Half of all enzyme activities are sensitive to either oxidation, reaction with electrophiles, or interaction with metal ions. Enzymes with active-site Cys include caspases, kinases, phosphatases, and proteases. Cys is also a component of active sites of iron-sulfur clusters of electron transfer proteins and an element of zinc fingers in transcription factors and zinc-binding domains of metallothioneins. Cys residues are also conserved in structural proteins such as actin and docking proteins such as 14-3-3. Oxidation of Cys residues in αIIbβ3 integrin controls platelet activation. Cys-rich regions are present in plasma membrane receptors and ion channels, including the NMDA receptors, EGF receptor, and others. Thus reversible oxidation of active site thiols can provide a common and central “on-off” mechanism for control of cell functions.

β-Actin contains a conserved Cys, which results in reversible binding of proteins, S-GS-ylation, and crosslinking of actin filaments upon oxidation. Oxidation functions in glucocorticoid receptor translocation into nuclei, and oxidation controls export of yeast AP-1 (Yap-1) from nuclei. Disulfide crosslinks control fluidity of mucus. Such changes in protein structure and interaction due to reversible oxidation can provide a central mechanism for specificity in redox signaling. In addition to containing active site and/or structural thiols, many proteins contain Cys which regulate activity by an allosteric mechanism. This type of regulation can provide a “rheostat” rather than an “on-off” switch, thereby providing a means to throttle processes by GS-ylation or S-nitrosylation.

Many naturally occurring selenoproteins with known functions are oxidoreductases which contain catalytic redox-active Sec (Jacob C, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 42:4742-4758 (2003)). Variants of the naturally occurring selenoprotein in which the Sec residues are replaced with Cys residues are typically 100-1,000 times less active (Johansson L, et al, Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1726:1-13 (2005)). Furthermore, analogs of naturally occurring proteins where one or more Cys residues are replaced with Sec can generate analogs that retain the folding of the native peptides, are more potent, and have the same or greater biological activity (Raffa, Life Sci., 87(15-16):451-6 (2010)).

Therefore, in some embodiments, the disclosed compositions and methods are used to manufacture recombinant variants or analogs where one or more naturally occurring Cys residues, for example Cys residues in the active site of an enzyme, are replaced with Sec residues. The methods and compositions can be used to generate analogs that retain a folding of the protein similar or the same as the native peptides, but are more potent while having the same or greater biological activity. Substituting one or more naturally occurring Cys residues with a Sec can increase the activity of the protein by 2, 5, 10, 100, 250, 500, 1,000 or more—fold over the activity of the protein that does not contain the Sec residue(s). Accordingly, the analogs can be used in therapeutic or research applications at a lower dosage, less frequently, with reduced toxicity, or combinations thereof relative to the naturally occurring protein.

In some embodiments, the disclosed compositions and methods can be used to prepare recombinant polypeptides where one or more cysteines that contributes to the formation of a disulfide bond in the protein is replaced with selenocysteine. Therefore, recombinant proteins having one or more Sec-Sec (diselenide) or Cys-Sec (selenocysteine-cysteine) bonds are disclosed.

A disulfide bond is a covalent bond, usually derived by the coupling of two thiol groups. Disulfide bonds in proteins are formed between the thiol groups of cysteine residues. A disulfide bond can stabilize the folded form of a protein in several ways. For example a disulfide bond can hold two portions of the protein together, favoring a folded topology and contributing to the formation and stability of secondary and tertiary structures. A disulfide bond can also form the center of a hydrophobic core in a folded protein, i.e., local hydrophobic residues may condense around the disulfide bond and onto each other through hydrophobic interactions. In some cases the hydrophobic core is an enzyme's active site, and the disulfide bond is needed for enzymatic efficiency or activity.

A diselenide bond, which is formed between two selenocysteine residues, or a selenocysteine-cysteine bond between a selenocysteine and cysteine can impart similar structural and functional characteristics to the protein as a disulfide bond. Diselenide and selenocysteine-cysteine bonds are infrequent in nature, but have been reported to be in the active site of some enzymes, for example the selenocysteine protein SelL (Shchedrina, et al., PNAS, 104(35):13919-13924 (2007)). Diselenide bonds have very low redox potential, but in some cases can be reduced by thioredoxin.

Therefore, in some embodiments, the disclosed compositions and methods are used to manufacture recombinant variants where one or more naturally occurring disulfide bonds are replaced with a diselenide or a selenocysteine-cysteine bond.

Replacing disulfide bonds with diselenide or selenocysteine-cysteine bonds can be used to reduce the redox potential of the bond, increase the half-life of the protein, increase the activity of the protein, alter the pharmacokinetics of the protein, for example, increase or decrease the association or dissociation constant, alter the folding and unfolding properties of the protein, or combinations thereof. For example, substituting one or more naturally occurring Cys residues with a Sec can increase the activity of the protein by 2, 5, 10, 100, 250, 500, 1,000 or more—fold over the activity of the protein that does not contain the Sec residue(s). Accordingly, the analogs can be used in therapeutic or research applications at a lower dosage, less frequently, with reduced toxicity, or combinations thereof relative to the naturally occurring protein.

Exemplary proteins where a naturally occurring Cys can be replaced with Sec according to the compositions and methods disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, caspases, kinases, phosphatases, proteases, transcription factors, metallothioneins, structural proteins such as actin and docking proteins such as 14-3-3, integrins such as αIIbβ3, plasma membrane receptors, ion channels, including the NMDA receptors, EGF receptor, and others.

The disclosed compositions and methods can be particularly useful for preparing recombinant antibodies, antigen binding fragments thereof, fusion proteins including a least one antibody domain (i.e., Ig fusion proteins) with altered properties, and receptor such as T cell receptors or receptor fragments including the binding domains. Antibodies contain inter-chain disulfide bonds which link the heavy and light chains, disulfide bonds that link two heavy chains, and disulfide bonds that link the two hinge regions. Antibodies also have disulfide bonds within the chains themselves (referred to as intra-chain disulfide bonds). The disclosed compositions and methods can be used to prepare recombinant antibodies where one or more disulfide bonds are replaced with diselenide bonds. The one or more of the inter-chain disulfide bonds which link the heavy and light chains, the disulfide bonds that link two heavy chains, the disulfide bonds that link the two hinge regions, the intra-chain disulfide bonds, or combinations thereof can be replaced with diselenide bonds.

Disulfide bonds in antibodies are important for assembly, stability and dimerization of the antibody. For example, disulfide bonds play a critical role in the stabilization of the immunoglobulin 0-sandwich. Under reducing conditions, such as those characteristic of recombinant protein expression systems, disulfide bonds do not normally form and as a result most antibodies expressed in that compartment are misfolded or inactive (Seo, et al., Protein Sci., 18(2): 259-267 (2009)). Furthermore, stability and homogeneity of therapeutic antibodies are important for safety and efficacy of therapeutic antibodies (McAuley, et al, Protein Sci., 17(1): 95-106 (2008)). Undesired biochemical, structural, and conformational forms, such as those generated when disulfide bonds are reduced, can lead to loss of efficacy and risk of adverse side effects.

Replacing one or more of the disulfide bonds of an antibody with diselenide or selenocysteine-cysteine bonds according to the disclosed compositions and methods can improve the yield, purity, or combinations thereof, of recombinantly produced antibodies. Replacing one or more of the disulfide bonds of an antibody with diselenide or selenocysteine-cysteine bonds according to the disclosed compositions and methods can also improve stability, increase efficacy, increase half-life, reduce toxicity, alter the pharmacokinetics of the antibody, for example, increase or decrease the association or dissociation constant, or combinations thereof of antibodies, such as therapeutic antibodies.

The antibodies can be xenogeneic, allogeneic, syngeneic, or modified forms thereof, such as humanized, single chain or chimeric antibodies. Antibodies may also be anti-idiotypic antibodies specific for a idiotype of the desired antigen. The term “antibody” is also meant to include both intact molecules as well as fragments thereof that include the antigen-binding site and are capable of binding to a desired epitope. These include Fab and F(ab′)₂ fragments which lack the Fc fragment of an intact antibody, and therefore clear more rapidly from the circulation, and may have less non-specific tissue binding than an intact antibody (Wahl et al., J. Nuc. Med. 24:316-325 (1983)). Also included are Fv fragments (Hochman, J. et al., Biochemistry, 12:1130-1135(1973); Sharon, J. et al., Biochemistry, 15:1591-1594 (1976)). These various fragments can be produced using conventional techniques such as protease cleavage or chemical cleavage (see, e.g., Rousseaux et al., Meth. Enzymol., 121:663-69 (1986)).

Antibody “formats” and methods of making recombinant antibodies are known in the art and reviewed in Laffly and Sodoyer, Hum Antibodies, 14(1-2):33-35 (2005). Methods of expressing and purifying antibodies from a recombinant expression system are known in the art, see for example, Knappik and Brundiers, “Recombinant Antibody Expression and Purification,” The Protein Protocols Handbook, Third Edition Edited by: J. M. Walker © Humana Press, a Part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC (2009).

Therapeutic antibodies that could benefit from replacement of one or more disulfide bonds with a diselenide or selenocysteine-cysteine bond are known in the art and include, but are not limited to, those discussed in Reichert, Mabs, 3(1): 76-99 (2011), for example, AIN-457, bapineuzumab, brentuximab vedotin, briakinumab, dalotuzumab, epratuzumab, farletuzumab, girentuximab (WX-G250), naptumomab estafenatox, necitumumab, obinutuzumab, otelixizumab, pagibaximab, pertuzumab, ramucirumab, REGN88, reslizumab, solanezumab, T1h, teplizumab, trastuzumab emtansine, tremelimumab, vedolizumab, zalutumumab and zanolimumab.

Other therapeutic antibodies that could benefit from replacement of one or more disulfide bonds with a diselenide bond include antibodies approved for use, in clinical trials, or in development for clinical use which include, but are not limited to, rituximab (Rituxan®, IDEC/Genentech/Roche) (see for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,736,137), a chimeric anti-CD20 antibody approved to treat Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma; HuMax-CD20, an anti-CD20 currently being developed by Genmab, an anti-CD20 antibody described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,500,362, AME-133 (Applied Molecular Evolution), hA20 (Immunomedics, Inc.), HumaLYM (Intracel), and PR070769 (PCT/US2003/040426, entitled “Immunoglobulin Variants and Uses Thereof”), trastuzumab (Herceptin®, Genentech) (see for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,677,171), a humanized anti-Her2/neu antibody approved to treat breast cancer; pertuzumab (rhuMab-2C4, Omnitarge), currently being developed by Genentech; an anti-Her2 antibody described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,753,894; cetuximab (Erbitux®, Imclone) (U.S. Pat. No. 4,943,533; PCT WO 96/40210), a chimeric anti-EGFR antibody in clinical trials for a variety of cancers; ABX-EGF (U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,883), currently being developed by Abgenix-Immunex-Amgen; HuMax-EGFr (U.S. Ser. No. 10/172,317), currently being developed by Genmab; 425, EMD55900, EMD62000, and EMD72000 (Merck KGaA) (U.S. Pat. No. 5,558,864; Murthy et al. 1987, Arch Biochem Biophys. 252(2):549-60; Rodeck et al., 1987, J Cell Biochem. 35(4):315-20; Kettleborough et al., 1991, Protein Eng. 4(7):773-83); 1CR62 (Institute of Cancer Research) (PCT WO 95/20045; Modjtahedi et al., 1993, J. Cell Biophys. 1993, 22(1-3):129-46; Modjtahedi et al., 1993, Br J Cancer. 1993, 67(2):247-53; Modjtahedi et al, 1996, Br J Cancer, 73(2):228-35; Modjtahedi et al, 2003, Int J Cancer, 105(2):273-80); TheraCIM hR3 (YM Biosciences, Canada and Centro de Immunologia Molecular, Cuba (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,891,996; 6,506,883; Mateo et al, 1997, Immunotechnology, 3(1):71-81); mAb-806 (Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering) (Jungbluth et al. 2003, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100(2):639-44); KSB-102 (KS Biomedix); MRI-1 (IVAX, National Cancer Institute) (PCT WO 0162931A2); and SC100 (Scancell) (PCT WO 01/88138); alemtuzumab (Campath®, Millenium), a humanized mAb currently approved for treatment of B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia; muromonab-CD3 (Orthoclone OKT3®), an anti-CD3 antibody developed by Ortho Biotech/Johnson & Johnson, ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin®), an anti-CD20 antibody developed by IDEC/Schering AG, gemtuzumab ozogamicin (Mylotarg®), an anti-CD33 (p67 protein) antibody developed by Celltech/Wyeth, alefacept (Amcvive®), anti-LFA-3 Fc fusion developed by Biogen), abciximab (ReoPro®), developed by Centocor/Lilly, basiliximab (Simulect®), developed by Novartis, palivizumab (Synagis®), developed by Medimmune, infliximab (Remicade®), an anti-TNFalpha antibody developed by Centocor, adalimumab (Humira®), an anti-TNFalpha antibody developed by Abbott, Humicade®, an anti-TNFalpha antibody developed by Celltech, golimumab (CNTO-148), a fully human TNF antibody developed by Centocor, etanercept (Enbrel®), an p75 TNF receptor Fc fusion developed by Immunex/Amgen, lenercept, an p55TNF receptor Fc fusion previously developed by Roche, ABX-CBL, an anti-CD 147 antibody being developed by Abgenix, ABX-IL8, an anti-IL8 antibody being developed by Abgenix, ABX-MAI, an anti-MUC18 antibody being developed by Abgenix, Pemtumomab (R1549,90Y-muHMFG1), an anti-MUC1 in development by Antisoma, Therex (R1550), an anti-MUC1 antibody being developed by Antisoma, AngioMab (AS1405), being developed by Antisoma, HuBC-1, being developed by Antisoma, Thioplatin (AS1407) being developed by Antisoma, Antegrene (natalizumab), an anti-alpha-4-beta-1 (VLA-4) and alpha-4-beta-7 antibody being developed by Biogen, VLA-1 mAb, an anti-VLA-1 integrin antibody being developed by Biogen, LTBR mAb, an anti-lymphotoxin beta receptor (LTBR) antibody being developed by Biogen, CAT-152, an anti-TGF-.beta.2 antibody being developed by Cambridge Antibody Technology, ABT 874 (J695), an anti-IL-12 p40 antibody being developed by Abbott, CAT-192, an anti-TGF.beta.1 antibody being developed by Cambridge Antibody Technology and Genzyme, CAT-213, an anti-Eotaxinl antibody being developed by Cambridge Antibody Technology, LyntphoStat-B® an anti-Blys antibody being developed by Cambridge Antibody Technology and Human Genome Sciences Inc., TRAIL-R1mAb, an anti-TRAIL-R1 antibody being developed by Cambridge Antibody Technology and Human Genome Sciences, Inc. Avastin® bevacizumab, rhuMAb-VEGF), an anti-VEGF antibody being developed by Genentech, an anti-HER receptor family antibody being developed by Genentech, Anti-Tissue Factor (ATF), an anti-Tissue Factor antibody being developed by Genentech. Xolair® (Omalizurnab), an anti-IgE antibody being developed by Genentech, Raptiva® (Efalizurnab), an anti-CD11a antibody being developed by Genentech and Xoma, MLN-02 Antibody (formerly LDP-02), being developed by Genentech and Millenium Pharmaceuticals, HuMax CD4, an anti-CD4 antibody being developed by Genmab, HuMax-IL15, an anti-IL15 antibody being developed by Genmab and Amgen, HuMax-Inflam, being developed by Genmab and Medarex, HuMax-Cancer, an anti-Heparanase I antibody being developed by Genmab and Medarex and Oxford GcoSciences, HuMax-Lymphoma, being developed by Genmab and Amgen, HuMax-TAC, being developed by Genmab, IDEC-131, and anti-CD40L antibody being developed by IDEC Pharmaceuticals, IDEC-151 (Clenoliximab), an anti-CD4 antibody being developed by IDEC Pharmaceuticals, IDEC-114, an anti-CD80 antibody being developed by IDFC Pharmaceuticals, IDEC-152, an anti-CD23 being developed by IDEC Pharmaceuticals, anti-macrophage migration factor (MIF) antibodies being developed by IDEC Pharmaceuticals, BEC2, an anti-idiotypic antibody being developed by Imclone, IMC-1C11, an anti-KDR antibody being developed by Imclone, DC101, an anti-fIlk-1 antibody being developed by Imclone, anti-VE cadherin antibodies being developed by Imclone, CEA-Cide® (labetuzumab), an anti-carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) antibody being developed by Immunomedics, LymphoCide® (Epratuzumab), an anti-CD22 antibody being developed by Immunomedics, AFP-Cide, being developed by Immunomedics, MyelomaCide, being developed by Immunomedics, LkoCide, being developed by Immunomedics, ProstaCide, being developed by Immunomedics, MDX-010, an anti-CTLA4 antibody being developed by Medarex, MDX-060, an anti-CD30 antibody being developed by Medarex, MDX-070 being developed by Medarex, MDX-018 being developed by Medarex, Osidem® (IDM-I), and anti-Her2 antibody being developed by Medarex and Immuno-Designed Molecules, HuMaxe-CD4, an anti-CD4 antibody being developed by Medarex and Genmab, HuMax-IL15, an anti-IL15 antibody being developed by Medarex and Genmab, CNTO 148, an anti-TNFα antibody being developed by Medarex and Centocor/J&J. CNTO 1275, an anti-cytokine antibody being developed by Centocor/J&J, MOR101 and MOR102, anti-intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) (CD54) antibodies being developed by MorphoSys, MOR201, an anti-fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR-3) antibody being developed by MorphoSys, Nuvion® (visilizumab), an anti-CD3 antibody being developed by Protein Design Labs, HuZAFO, an anti-gamma interferon antibody being developed by Protein Design Labs, Anti-501 Integrin, being developed by Protein Design Labs, anti-IL-12, being developed by Protein Design Labs, ING-1, an anti-Ep-CAM antibody being developed by Xoma, Xolair® (Omalizumab) a humanized anti-IgE antibody developed by Genentech and Novartis, and MLN01, an anti-Beta2 integrin antibody being developed by Xoma. In another embodiment, the therapeutics include KRN330 (Kirin); huA 33 antibody (A33, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research); CNTO 95 (alpha V integrins, Centocor); MEDI-522 (alpha V133 integrin, Medimmune); volociximab (uVI 1integrin, Biogen/PDL); Human mAb 216 (B cell glycosolated epitope, NCI); BiTE MT103 (bispecific CD19×CD3, Medimmune); 4G7×H22 (Bispecific BcellxFcgammaR1, Meclarex/Merck KGa); rM28 (Bispecific CD28×MAPG, U.S. Patent No. EP1444268); MDX447 (EMD 82633) (Bispecific CD64×EGFR, Medarex); Catumaxomab (removah) (Bispecific EpCAM×anti-CD3, Trion/Fres); Ertumaxomab (bispecific HER2/CD3, Fresenius Biotech); oregovomab (OvaRex) (CA-125, ViRexx); Rencarex® (WX G250) (carbonic anhydrase IX, Wilex); CNTO 888 (CCL2, Centocor); TRC105 (CD105 (endoglin), Tracon); BMS-663513 (CD137 agonist, Brystol Myers Squibb); MDX-1342 (CD19, Medarex); Siplizumab (MEDI-507) (CD2, Medimmune); Ofatumumab (Humax-CD20) (CD20, Genmab); Rituximab (Rituxan) (CD20, Genentech); THIOMAB (Genentech); veltuzumab (hA20) (CD20, Immunomedics); Epratuzumab (CD22, Amgen); lumiliximab (IDEC 152) (CD23, Biogen); muromonab-CD3 (CD3, Ortho); HuM291 (CD3 fc receptor, PDL Biopharma); HeFi-1, CD30, NCI); MDX-060 (CD30, Medarex); MDX-1401 (CD30, Medarex); SGN-30 (CD30, Seattle Genetics); SGN-33 (Lintuzumab) (CD33, Seattle Genetics); Zanolimumab (HuMax-CD4) (CD4, Genmab); HCD 122 (CD40, Novartis); SGN-40 (CD40, Seattle Genetics); Campathlh (Alemtuzumab) (CD52, Genzyme); MDX-1411 (CD70, Medarex); hLL1 (EPB-I) (CD74.38, Immunomedics); Galiximab (IDEC-144) (CD80, Biogen); MT293 (TRC093/D93) (cleaved collagen, Tracon); HuLuc63 (CS1, PDL Pharma); ipilimumab (MDX-010) (CTLA4, Brystol Myers Squibb); Tremelimumab (Ticilimumab, CP-675,2) (CTLA4, Pfizer); 1-IGS-ETR1 (Mapatumumab) (DR4TRAIL-R1 agonist, Human Genome Science/Glaxo Smith Kline); AMG-655 (DR5, Amgen); Apomab (DR5, Genentech); CS-1008 (DR5, Daiichi Sankyo); HGS-ETR2 (lexatumumab) (DR5TRAIL-R2 agonist, HGS); Cetuximab (Erbitux) (EGFR, Imclone); IMC-11F8, (EGFR, Imclone); Nimotuzumab (EGFR, YM Bio); Panitumumab (Vectabix) (EGFR, Amgen); Zalutumumab (HuMaxEGFr) (EGFR, Genmab); CDX-110 (EGFRvIII, AVANT Immunotherapeutics); adecatumumab (MT201) (Epcam, Merck); edrecolomab (Panorex, 17-1A) (Epcam Glaxo/Centocor); MORAb-003 (folate receptor a, Morphotech); KW-2871 (ganglioside GD3, Kyowa); MORAb-009 (GP-9, Morphotech); CDX-1307 (MDX-1307) (hCGb, Celldex); Trastuzumab (Herceptin) (HER2, Celldex); Pertuzumab (rhuMAb 2C4) (HER2 (DI), Genentech); apolizumab (HLA-DR beta chain, PDL Pharma); AMG-479 (IGF-1R, Amgen); anti-IGF-1R R1507 (IGF1-R, Roche); CP 751871 (IGF 1-R, Pfizer); IMC-A12 (IGF1-R, Imclone); B1111022 Biogen); Mik-beta-1 (IL-2Rb (CD122), Hoffman LaRoche); CNTO 328 (IL6, Centocor); Anti-KIR (1-7F9) (Killer cell Ig-like Receptor (KIR), Novo); Hu3S193 (Lewis (y), Wyeth, Ludwig Institute of Cancer Research); hCBE-11 (LTβR, Biogen); HuHMFG1 (MUC1, Antisoma/NCI); RAV 12 (N-linked carbohydrate epitope, Raven); CAL (parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTH-rP), University of California); CT-011 (PD1, CtireTech); MDX-1106 (ono-4538) (PDL Nileclarox/Ono); MAb CT-0I1 (PD1, Curetech); IMC-3G3 (PDGFRa, Imclone); bavituximab (phosphatidylserine, Peregrine); huJ591 (PSMA, Cornell Research Foundation); muJ591 (PSMA, Cornell Research Foundation); GC1008 (TGFb (pan) inhibitor (IgG4), Genzyme); Infliximab (Remicade) (TNFα, Centocor); A27.15 (transferrin receptor, Salk Institute, INSERN WO 2005/111082); E2.3 (transferrin receptor, Salk Institute); Bevacizumab (Avastin) (VEGF, Genentech); HuMV833 (VEGF, Tsukuba Research Lab-WO/2000/034337, University of Texas); IMC-18F1 (VEGFR1, Imclone); IMC-1121 (VEGFR2, Imclone)

In another embodiment, the recombinant protein is a fusion protein having a least one Cys, preferably at least one Cys-Cys bond. In some embodiments, the fusion protein is a fusion protein containing an antibody domain, for example an Ig fusion protein. A fusion protein typically includes two or more domains, where a first domain including a peptide of interest is fused, directly or indirectly to a second polypeptide. In some embodiments, the second domain includes one or more domains of an Ig heavy chain constant region, preferably having an amino acid sequence corresponding to the hinge, CH₂ and CH₃ regions of a human immunoglobulin Cγ1 chain. Construction of immunoglobulin fusion proteins is discussed in Current Protocols in Immunology, (ed. Diane Hollenbaugh, Alejandro Aruffo) UNIT 10.19A, Published May 1, 2002, by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

3. Selenocysteine-Containing Polypeptide Conjugates

In some embodiments, the addition of one or more selenocysteines can be used to facilitate linkage of second therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic agent to the selenocysteine containing polypeptide. Methods of utilizing cysteines as reactive sites for attachment of a second agent, for example, via a disulfide bridge, are known in the art. See for example, Ritter, Pharmaceutical Technology, 42-47 (2012), Miao, et al., Bioconjug. Chem., 19(1):15-19 (2008); and Dosio, et al., Toxins (Basel), 3(7):848-83 (2011). Accordingly, one or more selenocysteines can be added to a recombinant polypeptide, or substitute for an existing amino acid such as cysteine, to create or replace a reactive site for conjugation of the second agent. The recombinant polypeptide and the second agent can be conjugated via a linker. In a preferred embodiment, the recombinant polypeptide engineered to a contain one or more selenocysteines is an antibody, for example a therapeutic antibody.

In some embodiments, the second agent is a toxin, diagnostic imaging agent, purification ligand or other engineered element that modifies the stability, activity, pharmacokinetics, or other properties of the protein. The second agent can be a small molecule.

In a preferred embodiment, the second agent is a therapeutic agent. For example, the second agent can be a chemotherapeutic drug. The majority of chemotherapeutic drugs can be divided into: alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anthracyclines, plant alkaloids, topoisomerase inhibitors, and other antitumour agents. All of these drugs affect cell division or DNA synthesis and function in some way. Additional therapeutics include monoclonal antibodies and the new tyrosine kinase inhibitors e.g. imatinib mesylate (GLEEVEC® or GLIVEC®), which directly targets a molecular abnormality in certain types of cancer (chronic myelogenous leukemia, gastrointestinal stromal tumors).

Representative chemotherapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, cisplatin, carboplatin, oxaliplatin, mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine, vindesine, taxol and derivatives thereof, irinotecan, topotecan, amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide, epipodophyllotoxins, trastuzumab (HERCEPTIN®), cetuximab, and rituximab (RITUXAN® or MABTHERA®), bevacizumab (AVASTIN®), and combinations thereof.

In some preferred embodiments, recombinant antibody including one or more selenocysteine polypeptides manufactured according to the disclosed methods is conjugated with second therapeutic agent such as a chemotherapeutic drug.

Conditions to be Treated

As discussed above, substituting one or more naturally occurring Cys residues with a Sec can increase activity, lower dosage, reduce toxicity, improve stability, increase efficacy, increase half-life or combinations thereof of a selenocysteine containing protein relative to its cysteine containing counterpart. Accordingly, therapeutic proteins containing one or more selenocysteine residues can be prepared according to the compositions and methods disclosed herein and administered to a subject in need thereof in an effective amount to reduce or alleviate one or more symptoms of a disease or disorder. Therapeutic proteins such as enzymes and antibodies which contain one or more cysteine residues or disulfide bonds can be replaced with Sec to increase activity, lower dosage, reduce toxicity, improve stability, increase efficacy, increase half-life, or attach a second agent or combinations thereof are discussed above and known in the art, and can be administered to subject to treat diseases or disorders including, but not limited to, infectious diseases, cancers, metabolic disorders autoimmune disorders, inflammatory disorders, and age-related disorders.

C. Administration

The recombinant selenocysteine containing polypeptides disclosed herein can be part of a pharmaceutical composition. The compositions can be administered in a physiologically acceptable carrier to a host. Preferred methods of administration include systemic or direct administration to a cell. The compositions can be administered to a cell or patient, as is generally known in the art for protein therapy applications.

The compositions can be combined in admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier vehicle. Therapeutic formulations are prepared for storage by mixing the active ingredient having the desired degree of purity with optional physiologically acceptable carriers, excipients or stabilizers (Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences 16th edition, Osol, A. Ed. (1980)), in the form of lyophilized formulations or aqueous solutions. Acceptable carriers, excipients or stabilizers are nontoxic to recipients at the dosages and concentrations employed, and include buffers such as phosphate, citrate and other organic acids; antioxidants including ascorbic acid; low molecular weight (less than about 10 residues) polypeptides; proteins, such as serum albumin, gelatin or immunoglobulins; hydrophilic polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone, amino acids such as glycine, glutamine, asparagine, arginine or lysine; monosaccharides, disaccharides and other carbohydrates including glucose, mannose, or dextrins; chelating agents such as EDTA; sugar alcohols such as mannitol or sorbitol; salt-forming counterions such as sodium; and/or nonionic surfactants such as Tween®, Pluronics® or PEG.

The compositions can be administered parenterally. As used herein, “parenteral administration” is characterized by administering a pharmaceutical composition through a physical breach of a subject's tissue. Parenteral administration includes administering by injection, through a surgical incision, or through a tissue-penetrating non-surgical wound, and the like. In particular, parenteral administration includes subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intravenous, intraarterial, intramuscular, intrasternal injection, and kidney dialytic infusion techniques.

Parenteral formulations can include the active ingredient combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as sterile water or sterile isotonic saline. Such formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a form suitable for bolus administration or for continuous administration. Injectable formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in unit dosage form, such as in ampules or in multi-dose containers containing a preservative. Parenteral administration formulations include suspensions, solutions, emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, pastes, reconstitutable dry (i.e. powder or granular) formulations, and implantable sustained-release or biodegradable formulations. Such formulations may also include one or more additional ingredients including suspending, stabilizing, or dispersing agents. Parenteral formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in the form of a sterile injectable aqueous or oily suspension or solution. Parenteral formulations may also include dispersing agents, wetting agents, or suspending agents described herein.

Methods for preparing these types of formulations are known. Sterile injectable formulations may be prepared using non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluents or solvents, such as water, 1,3-butane diol, Ringer's solution, isotonic sodium chloride solution, and fixed oils such as synthetic monoglycerides or diglycerides. Other parentally-administrable formulations include microcrystalline forms, liposomal preparations, and biodegradable polymer systems. Compositions for sustained release or implantation may include pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or hydrophobic materials such as emulsions, ion exchange resins, sparingly soluble polymers, and sparingly soluble salts.

Pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a buccal formulation. Such formulations may be in the form of tablets, powders, aerosols, atomized solutions, suspensions, or lozenges made using known methods, and may contain from about 0.1% to about 20% (w/w) active ingredient with the balance of the formulation containing an orally dissolvable or degradable composition and/or one or more additional ingredients as described herein. Preferably, powdered or aerosolized formulations have an average particle or droplet size ranging from about 0.1 nanometers to about 200 nanometers when dispersed.

As used herein, “additional ingredients” include one or more of the following: excipients, surface active agents, dispersing agents, inert diluents, granulating agents, disintegrating agents, binding agents, lubricating agents, sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents, preservatives, physiologically degradable compositions (e.g., gelatin), aqueous vehicles, aqueous solvents, oily vehicles and oily solvents, suspending agents, dispersing agents, wetting agents, emulsifying agents, demulcents, buffers, salts, thickening agents, fillers, emulsifying agents, antioxidants, antibiotics, antifungal agents, stabilizing agents, and pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or hydrophobic materials. Other “additional ingredients” which may be included in the pharmaceutical compositions are known. Suitable additional ingredients are described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Genaro, ed., Easton, Pa. (1985).

Dosages and desired concentrations of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein may vary depending on the particular use envisioned. The determination of the appropriate dosage or route of administration is well within the skill of an ordinary physician. Animal experiments provide reliable guidance for the determination of effective doses for human therapy. Interspecies scaling of effective doses can be performed following the principles laid down by Mordenti, J. and Chappell, W. “The use of interspecies scaling in toxicokinetics” In Toxicokinetics and New Drug Development, Yacobi et al., Eds., Pergamon Press, New York 1989, pp. 42-96.

Examples

Mukai, et al., “Transfer RNAs with novel cloverleaf structures,” Nucleic Acids Research, 45(5):2776-2785 (2017), and all of the associated Supplementary Data and materials, doi: 10.1093/nar/gkw898; U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/506,338; Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2018 Jun. 11; 57(24):7215-7219. doi: 10.1002/anie.201713215, and 39 pages of supplemental material (anie201713215-sup-0001-misc_information.pdf), WO 2013/009868; U.S. Pat. No. 9,464,288; and U.S. Published Application Nos. 2017/0002347 and 2018/0105854 are specifically incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Example 1: tRNA^(Sec)-Like tRNAs are Widespread in Bacteria

Since the discovery of tRNA in the late-1950s (Hoagland, et al., J Biol Chem, 231:241-257 (1958)), its role as an adaptor molecule during translation of the genetic information has been extensively investigated (RajBhandary, et al., American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. (1995)). While recent research has focused on the non-translational functions of tRNAs (Keam, et al., Life (Basel), 5:1638-1651 (2015); Raina, et al., Front Genet, 5:Article 171 (2014); Hamashima, et al., Biomol Concepts, 4:309-318 (2013); Katz, et al., Mol Microbiol, doi: 10.1111/mmi.13419 (2016)), the rapidly increasing expanse of genomic and metagenomic sequence information has revived the interests in the canonical function of tRNAs (Ling, et al., Nat Rev Microbiol, 13:707-721 (2015)). Recent studies have identified a number of non-canonical tRNA species that were previously mis-annotated or undetected due to their unusual recognition elements, anticodon sequences, and irregular secondary structures (Katz, et al., Mol Microbiol, doi: 10.1111/mmi.13419 (2016); Ling, et al., Nat Rev Microbiol, 13:707-721 (2015); Hamashima, et al., Mol Biol Evol, 33:530-540 (2016); Marck, et al., RNA, 8:1189-1232 (2002); Campbell, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 110:5540-5545 (2013); Borrel, et al., Archaea, 374146 (2014); Ivanova, et al., Science, 344:909-913 (2014); Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016); Muhlhausen, et al., Genome Res, 26:945-955 (2016); Swart, et al., Cell, 166:691-702 (2016)). Interestingly, although the function of many of them remains unknown (Hamashima, et al., Biomol Concepts, 4:309-318 (2013); Katz, et al., Mol Microbiol, doi: 10.1111/mmi.13419 (2016); Hamashima, et al., Mol Biol Evol, 33:530-540 (2016)), some of these non-canonical tRNAs are known to be responsible for changes to the universal meaning of the genetic code (Ling, et al., Nat Rev Microbiol, 13:707-721 (2015); Campbell, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 110:5540-5545 (2013); Borrel, et al., Archaea, 374146 (2014); Ivanova, et al., Science, 344:909-913 (2014); Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016); Muhlhausen, et al., Genome Res, 26:945-955 (2016); Swart, et al., Cell, 166:691-702 (2016)). Therefore, proper identification of tRNA genes is important to identify genetic code variations in nature (Campbell, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 110:5540-5545 (2013); Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016)).

All tRNAs fold into an L-shaped tertiary structure which physically links the amino acid moiety attached to one end (amino-acid acceptor branch) to the genetic information of the anticodon sequence on the other end (the anticodon branch) (RajBhandary, et al., American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. (1995); Katz, et al., Mol Microbiol, doi: 10.1111/mmi.13419 (2016)). The amino-acid acceptor branch consists of a 7-bp acceptor stem and a 5-bp T-stem, and this 12-bp branch is recognized by the elongation factor (EF-Tu), whereas the anticodon branch consists of the D-arm, V-arm, and anticodon arm. The size and structure of tRNAs are normally standardized in a particular genetic code system, as they share the same apparatus such as processing RNases, base modification enzymes, CCA-adding enzyme, EF-Tu, and the ribosome. Although tRNA size reduction is common in the mitochondrial genomes, all prokaryotic and eukaryotic tRNA species are believed to have a 12-bp amino-acid acceptor branch (7/5) with a few exceptions. To date such exceptions are known for selenocysteine (Sec) tRNAs and histidine (His) tRNAs. Most tRNA^(His) species have an additional guanosine at the 5′-end (G-1) that produces a non-canonical 7/5 structure (Cooley, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 79:6475-6479 (1982); Orellana, et al., Mol Cell Biol, 6:525-529 (1986)). In contrast, tRNA^(Sec) has a 13-bp amino-acid acceptor branch (8/5 or 9/4) (Hubert, et al., RNA, 4:1029-1033 (1998); Schan, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 17:7159-7165 (1989)) and are actually longer than the other tRNA species. Bacterial tRNA^(Sec) species with 12-bp amino-acid acceptor branches have also been identified (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016); Cravedi, et al., Genome Biol Evol, 7:2692-2704 (2015)). Among these, tRNA^(Sec) species with a 12-bp amino-acid acceptor branch composed of an 8-bp acceptor stem and a 4-bp T-stem and a bulge nucleotide at position 51a were identified. The existence of such 8/4 tRNA^(Sec) structure in two different bacterial phyla (Actinobacteria and Chloroflexi) prompted a search for other previously unidentified or mischaracterized tRNAs with an 8/4 structure. In the results below, a large number of bacterial tRNA sequences with different secondary structures were identified, annotated, and classified, and their translational functions in Escherichia coli evaluated.

Materials and Methods

Identification of tRNA Sequences

The false positive sequences of a previous tRNA^(Sec) search study (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016)) were re-analyzed, and tRNA^(Sec)-like sequences with a non-canonical composition of the amino-acid acceptor branch were manually collected with the aid of the ARAGORN server (Laslett, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 32:11-16 (2004)) and the Clustal X program (Larkin, et al., Bioinformatics, 23:2947-2948 (2007)). Next, a BLAST search of some soil and sediment metagenome data was performed in the Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) system (Markowitz, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 42:D568-573 (2014)) and the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) for more allo-tRNA sequences. A number of metagenomic contigs were found to contain up to two allo-tRNA genes and frequently annotated as belonging to Acidobacteria.

The resulting allo-tRNA sequences were classified into several groups, and representative sequences were used as query for BLAST searches of acidobacterial genomes. Acidobacterium strain C40 was renamed in this study as Edaphobacter strain C40, based on the 99.4% 16S rRNA sequence similarity with Edaphobacter modestus Jbg-1^(T) (Koch, et al., Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 58:1114-1122 (2008)). Some of the selC* tRNA sequences were found in the false positive sequences of the tRNA^(Sec) search. By using them as query for BLAST, most of the selC* tRNA sequences were detected. The resulting selC* tRNA sequences were classified into several groups with the aid of the ARAGORN server (Laslett, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 32:11-16 (2004)) and the Clustal X program (Larkin, et al., Bioinformatics, 23:2947-2948 (2007)). A few allo-tRNA sequences with a serine anticodon were found in tRNA gene clusters of unknown bacteriophages in the Macroalgal surface ecosystem from Botany Bay, Sydney, Australia. The secondary structures of all tRNAs were manually predicted in the clusters and found (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) and (8/4) tRNA^(His) species. Next, a BLAST search of all metagenomic assembled sequence data was performed in IMG and NCBI for more (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) and (8/4) tRNA^(His) sequences. Some allo-tRNA sequences missing nucleotides 9-11 were found in some metatranscriptome reads of the Harvard Forest Long Term Ecological Research site (Petersham, Mass., USA) and from the Peat soil microbial communities from Weissenstadt, Germany. The secondary structures of these tRNAs were predicted BLAST searches of all metatranscriptome datasets were performed in IMG for more read sequences containing even a part of these tRNAs.

Results

The tRNA^(Sec) search pipeline used previously (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55:5337-5341 (2016)) produced tRNA sequences with high similarity to the tRNA^(Sec) covariance model, but they were considered false positives after further curation. Upon re-analysis a series of tRNA sequences with non-canonical secondary structures were identified. These tRNA genes were classified into two groups: “allo-tRNA” (named after their irregular appearance) and “SelC* tRNA^(Cys)” (FIG. 6A-6F). While allo-tRNA genes belong to bacteria from Clostridia, Proteobacteria, and Acidobacteria, selC* genes were found in anaerobic bacteria from the phyla Firmicutes, Thermodesulfobacteria, Nitrospirae, and Proteobacteria. Both tRNA groups are structurally similar to tRNA^(Sec) as they have a long V-arm and longer anticodon and acceptor stems compared to canonical tRNAs (FIGS. 6A-6F). Moreover, the D-stem-loop of allo-tRNAs resembles that of tRNA^(Sec) with its long stem and tetraloop (FIG. 6A-6B). The most striking feature of allo-tRNAs is their 8/4 or 9/3 composition of the 12-bp amino-acid acceptor branch (FIG. 6A-6B), whereas SelC* tRNA^(Cys) species of certain δ-proteobacteria may have a modified 8/4 structure with a bulge base A51a (FIG. 6C).

The presence of a long V-arm and the identity of the discriminator base (G73 or U73) in most allo-tRNAs indicate that these tRNAs may be serine tRNA isoacceptors, since these unique elements are important for aminoacylation by seryl-tRNA synthetase (SerRS) (Wu, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 21:5589-5594 (1993); Suzuki, et al., EMBO J, 16:1122-1134 (1997); Himeno, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 18:6815-6819 (1990); Tukalo, et al., Biopolymers and Cell, 29:311-323 (2013); Biou, et al., Science, 263:1404-1410 (1994)). In addition, SerRS also recognizes not only (7/5) tRNA^(Ser) but also (8/5, 9/4, and 8/4) tRNA^(Sec) and even a variant of tRNA^(Sec) with a 9/3 structure (Mizutani, et al., Mol Biol Rep, 25:211-216 (1998)). SelC* tRNAs were named after the selC gene, which encodes tRNA^(Sec) in E. coli. SelC* tRNA^(Cys) isoacceptors have an U73 discriminator base and cysteine GCA or opal UCA anticodons (FIG. 6C). U73 and GCA are the most important identity elements for CysRS (Pallanck, et al., J Biol Chem, 267:7221-7223 (1992); Komatsoulis, et al., Biochemistry, 32:7435-7444 (1993)), and certain CysRS forms are known to cysteinylate tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) (Turanov, et al., Science, 323:259-261 (2009)).

Next metagenomic contigs containing allo-tRNA genes were analyzed and tRNA^(Ser) and tRNA^(His) species with 8/4 structure (FIG. 6A-6E) and polycistrons of irregular tRNAs with 7/5 and 8/4 structures were discovered. (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) was found in bacteriophages, proteobacteria, and bovine rumen bacteria such as Clostridia, while (8/4) tRNA^(His) was found in bacteriophages and an α-proteobac-terium. Interestingly, (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) and (8/4) tRNA^(His) genes coexist in the same tRNA gene clusters of α-proteobacterial phages. The (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) species are included in the (8/4) allo-tRNA group or in the Y20-lacking (8/4) allo-tRNA derivative group. The (8/4) tRNA^(His) species lack G-1 and have A73 (or U73), which is characteristic of the (7/5) tRNA^(His) species of a group of α-proteobacteria (41). The polycistrons of irregular tRNAs are discussed below.

Example 2: tRNA have Extensive Structural Plasticity

The structural features that enable these tRNAs to be folded into a standardized tertiary tRNA structure were examined. In most cases, the cloverleaf-like secondary structure of (8/4) and (9/3) tRNAs could not be predicted properly by any of the commonly used RNA folding prediction programs (Laslett, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 32:11-16 (2004)). Therefore, the cloverleaf structures of (8/4 and 9/3) allo-tRNAs and SelC* tRNAs were manually curated and predicted using structural alignments guided by tRNA^(Sec) crystal structures, an approach typically used for predicting tRNA^(Sec)cloverleaf structures (Itoh, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 41:6729-6738 (2013)).

Allo-tRNAs are generally similar to archaeal and eukaryotic (9/4) tRNA^(Sec) (Hubert, et al., RNA, 4:1029-1033 (1998)), except for the lengths of acceptor- and T-stems. A more detailed analysis of the secondary structure shows that a few nucleotides at junctions may be involved in the tertiary structures of allo-tRNAs. The base at position 48 may be involved in the V-stem structure in most cases (FIG. 1B), similar to (9/4) tRNA^(Sec) (Hubert, et al., RNA, 4:1029-1033 (1998)). Some (8/4 and 9/3) allo-tRNA and (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) species lack the nucleotide at position 10 (FIG. 6A-6B) and may require, at least, one or two linker nucleotides between the acceptor arm and D-arm. Such alternative folding was observed in the crystal structure of a pyrrolysine tRNA (tRNA^(Pyl)), where the nucleotides at positions 25 and 44a form a non-WC base pair (Ambrogelly, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 104:3141-3146 (2007); Nozawa, et al., Nature, 457:1163-1167 (2009); Mustoe, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:3592-3599 (2015)). Thus, tRNAs missing N10 might form similar tertiary arrangement (FIG. 6A-6B). Rubrobacter tRNA^(Sec) also lacks nucleotides at positions 9 and 10 and has U44a (FIG. 6E). The unpaired nucleotide at position 45 found in some (9/3) allo-tRNAs (FIG. 6B) might fill the space between the L-shaped tRNA body and the V-stem, which is occupied by the G45-A48 pair in human tRNA^(Sec) (Itoh, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 37:6259-6268 (2009)).

The selC* tRNA^(Cys) species of certain 6-proteobacteria (FIG. 6C) can in theory have three alternative cloverleaf structures, two of which are 7/5. However, the 8/4 structure with a bulge nucleotide at position 51a (FIG. 6E) may be more energetically favorable, since the other two possible structures, 7/5 and 7/5 with the bulge nucleotide, eliminate two and five hydrogen bonds, respectively. In the 8/4 structure, residues at positions 9 and 10 are missing, which might be compensated by G45 (FIG. 6C), as discussed above. In contrast, the structure of the D-stem-loop is more difficult to predict since WC and G:U wobble base pairing patterns leads to a sterically unfavorable tri-loop. The D-stem-loop may have either a triloop hairpin structure or a larger loop with a shorter stem. Thus, the hypothetical three successive WC and G:U wobble base pairs between bases at positions 13-15 and 20a-23 were indicated by dashed lines on the predicted cloverleaf structure (FIG. 6C). Actually, GGG-triloop is not observed in the D-stem-loop of Archaeoglobus fulgidus tRNA^(Cys) crystal structure (Fukunaga, et al., Nat Struct Mol Biol, 14:272-279 (2007)), while a CGG-triloop may form in the D-stem-loop of Candidatus Methanomassiliicoccus intestinalis tRNA^(Pyl) (Borrel, et al., Archaea, 374146 (2014)).

Example 3: Allo-tRNAs have Diverse Anticodon Sequences

Although the (8/4) tRNA^(Ser) species have anticodons corresponding to serine codons, most of allo-tRNA species have non-serine anticodons (Table 3). In fact, their anticodon sequences are highly diverse and correspond to 35 distinct codons (Table 3). Among them, the UAU, GCG, and GUC anticodons corresponding to the AUA isoleucine (Ile) codon, the CGC arginine (Arg) codon, and the GAC aspartic acid (Asp) codon, respectively, are predominant, whereas (8/4) allo-tRNAs with anticodons corresponding to phenylalanine (Phe), valine (Val), His, and lysine (Lys) codons were only found once in the examined metagenomic dataset (Table 3). In contrast, the (9/3) allo-tRNA species have anticodons corresponding to the AGA/AGG Arg codons, the UUA/UUG/CUA/CUG leucine (Leu) codons, and the UAA stop codon (Table 3).

TABLE 3 Anticodon diversity of allo-tRNAs. Possible codon- anticodon interactions are indicated with bars. The numbers of (8/4) and (9/3) allo-tRNA sequences are indicated with red and blue letters, respectively.

Example 4: Allo-tRNAs are Fully Compatible with a Bacterial Translation System

Materials and Methods

Plasmids and E. coli Strains

Plasmid pGFiB (Normanly, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 83:6548-6552 (1986)) was used for cloning the Desulfococcus biacutus selC* tRNA^(Cys) sequence and its variants using EcoRI and BamHI sites. The arabinose promoter cassette of pBAD-myc-HisA (Invitrogen) was previously transplanted into pRSFDuet1 (Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 42:9976-9983 (2014)) to make pBAD-RSF. The open reading frame (ORF) of the Desulfomonile tiedjei cysS gene was cloned from the genomic DNA obtained from DSMZ (German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany) and fused directly downstream of the kan marker gene of pBAD-RSF with a weak Shine-Dalgarno sequence of the E. coli prfA gene [TTTACAGGGTGCATTTACGCCT (SEQ ID NO:64)]. The cloned cysS gene was mutated using Infusion (Clontech) to make the cysS variant genes. The multiple cloning site (MCS) of pBAD-RSF was replaced by the MCS and the rrnC terminator sequence of pGFiB with a modification of BamHI site to BglII site using Infusion to make pBAD-RSF5. Allo-tRNA sequences were cloned into the MCS of pBAD-RSF5 using EcoRI and BgII sites. Plasmid pBAD-sfGFP (Fan, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 43:e156 (2015)) was mutated using Infusion to make the sfGFP variant genes. Plasmid pACYC184 was mutated using Infusion to make the cat variant genes. The ORF of the cat marker gene in pACYC184 was replaced using Infusion with the ORF of D. tiedjei selD gene cloned from the genomic DNA to make pACYC-DtselD. The E. coli strain DH10B was used for allo-tRNA experiments. The E. coli WL400 (MC4100 seD204::cat+) (Leinfelder, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 87:543-547 (1990)) cells harboring pACYC-DtselD corresponded to E. coli ΔselD with D. tiedjei selD.

Mass Analysis

sfGFP variants encoding a C-terminal His-tag were purified using nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid agarose (QIAGEN). Purified sfGFP solutions were concentrated by centrifugation using Amicon Ultra 10k (Merck Millipore) and subjected to peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) analysis by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) performed by the Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory (Yale University).

tRNA sequences for FIGS. 7A-7E FIG. 7A (SEQ ID NO: 46) GGAGGGCAUCUUCAGUAGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUGAGAAACGGUU GCAGGGUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCG FIG. 7B (SEQ ID NO: 47) GGAGGGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUUAAAAUUCCU UGAAAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA FIG. 7C (SEQ ID NO: 48) GGGGAGUAAUGUGCGGUGGUCCGCACCGUAGUCUGCGAAACUAUU GGUUCGUUUAUACGAAUGGGGUUCAAUUCCCCUGCUCUCCACCA FIG. 7D (SEQ ID NO: 49) GGGGUGGGGUUCCGGCUGGUGCCGGUCGCGGGCUUUAAACCCGUC AGGACGCUGCGACGCGUAAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCACUCCG FIG. 7E (SEQ ID NO: 50) GGGCGGGGGUUCCGUCUGGUGACGGUCGCGGGCUUUAAACCCGUC AGGACGCUGUGCAGGCGUUAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCCGUCCA

Results

To investigate whether allo-tRNAs are active translational adaptors, super-folder green fluorescence protein (sfGFP) were used as a reporter in E. coli. The Ser codon at position 2 of wild-type (WT) sfGFP was mutated to either CUC or UUA and the resulting mutants were expressed together with Silvibacterium bohemicum (8/4) allo-tRNA_(GAG) (Llado, et al., Syst Appl Microbiol, 39:14-19 (2016)) or (9/3) allo-tRNA_(UAA) in E. coli (FIG. 7A-7B). Interestingly, both tRNAs efficiently inserted Ser in response to the CUC and UUA Leu codons, respectively, as confirmed by the liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) analyses of purified sfGFP. Furthermore, induction of the allo-tRNA expression from the araBAD promoter led to severe cell growth arrest and ultimately to cell death, which is possibly caused by global mis-incorporation of Ser at Leu codons in the E. coli proteome.

(8/4) and (9/3) allo-tRNAs with a G3:U70 wobble pair, the most important structural element for aminoacylation by alanyl-tRNA synthetase (AlaRS) were also identified (Hou, et al., Nature, 333:140-145 (1988); McClain, et al., Science, 240:793-796 (1988); Naganuma, et al., Nature, 510:507-511 (2014)). To test whether these allo-tRNAs can be acylated by AlaRS in vivo, three examples were chosen, and their wild-type anticodons (GCG and UUA) replaced with the amber anticodon CUA (FIG. 7C-7E) and mutated the Ser2 codon of sfGFP to an amber stop codon. The mutant sfGFP was then co-expressed with one of the three allo-tRNAs in E. coli. The three amber suppressor tRNAs efficiently translated the amber codon, leading to expression of the full-length sfGFP variant, and producing as much fluorescence as did cells expressing WT sfGFP (FIG. 7F). The sfGFP variants were then purified, and the identity of the amino acid incorporated at position 2 was revealed by LC-MS/MS and PMF analyses (FIG. 3D). The amber codon was mainly translated as Ala and Ser, as judged by the probability scores. Insertion of Asn, Gln, Lys, and possibly Cys, Ile, and Glu was also detected. Only the allo-tRNA 9/3-2 variant inserted Ser, probably due to its discriminator base G73.

To further confirm the allo-tRNA-mediated incorporation of Ala and Ser, the chloramphenicol (Cm) acetyltransferase (CAT) gene was used as a reporter since it contains an important catalytic Ser residue at position 146 that only tolerates substitutions with Ala (Lewendon, et al., Biochemistry, 29:2075-2080 (1990)). Replacing Ser146 with Asn, Gln, or Lys produced an inactive CAT, while the Ser146Ala CAT mutant retained activity. Then, an amber codon was substituted for Ser146 and the resulting CAT variant was expressed with any of the three allo-tRNA variants. The allo-tRNAs suppressed the amber codon and conferred Cm resistance to the E. coli cells with the Ser146TAG cat gene (FIG. 7G). However, only the allo-tRNA 9/3-2 variant conferred the resistance at a Cm concentration of 100 pg/mL, which corroborates that only this tRNA incorporates Ser. Together, these results clearly demonstrated that these allo-tRNA (both 8/4 and 9/3) sequences were properly folded, processed, aminoacylated, and delivered to the ribosomes by EF-Tu in E. coli.

Example 5: Active and Inactive Allo-tRNAs are Associated with Toxin-Antitoxin Systems

Materials and Methods

In Vitro Aminoacylation with E. coli Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases

E. coli cells harboring expression plasmids for E. coli threonyl-tRNA synthetase (ThrRS), glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS) (glyQ and glyS subunits), and histidyl-tRNA synthetase (HisRS) were obtained from the ASKA collections (Kitagawa, et al., (A Complete Set of E. coli K-12 ORF Archive): Unique Resources for Biological Research. DNA Research, 12:291-299 (2006)). Overnight-night cultures for each protein were used to inoculate 1 L of fresh LB media containing chloramphenicol. Cells were grown to an A₆₀₀ of 0.6 and protein overexpression was induced with 0.1 mM IPTG overnight at 25° C. Cells were harvested by centrifugation and the resulting pellet was lysed with buffer containing 50 mM Tris (pH 8), 300 mM NaCl, and protease inhibitor cocktail tablets (cOmplete, Roche). Lysed cells were then centrifuged at 4° C. for 45 min at 18,000×g. The lysate was loaded on a TALON metal affinity resin (Clontech), and the protein was eluted with varying concentrations of imidazole. The protein-containing fractions were pooled and stored in buffer containing 50 mM HEPES (pH 7.3) and 150 mM NaCl. tRNA genes were cloned into pUC18 using Gibson Assembly (New England Biolabs), and the tRNAs were prepared using in vitro transcription as previously described (Ahel, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 277:34743-34748 (2002)). Aminoacylation assays were carried out with 5 μM tRNA and 0.5 μM tRNA synthetase in buffer containing 50 mM Hepes (pH 7.3), 4 mM ATP, 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.1 mg/mL BSA, 1 mM dithiothreitol, and 20 μM [¹⁴C]His (590 cpm/pmol) (PerkinElmer), 100 μM [¹⁴C]Gly (146 cpm/pmol) (PerkinElmer) or 25 μM [³H]Thr (7779 cpm/mol) (American Radiolabeled Chemicals). Reactions were incubated at 37° C. and after 15 min, 10 μL of the reaction mixture was spotted on Whatman 3MM filters pre-soaked with 5% trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Filters were washed three times with 5% TCA, and the remaining radioactivity was quantified using a scintillation counter.

tRNA Sequences for FIGS. 8C-8I FIG. 8C (SEQ ID NO: 51) GGAGGGCGUCUCGCUGGCGCGAGAAGCGGUCUUAUAAACCGCAAA UGUCUUGACGGGCAUUGGGGUCCGAUCCCCCCGCCCUCCG FIG. 8D (SEQ ID NO: 52) GGAGGGCGACAGGCCGGUGCCUGGAGCCGACUUAUAAUCGGCGAA UCCUUCGCAGGGGAUAGCGGUUCGACUCCGCCGCCCUCCG FIG. 8E (SEQ ID NO: 53) GGAGGGAGAUCCCGGCUGGUGCCUGGAGCCGACUUAUAAUCGGUC GAUCCCGUUCCGGGGAUCGCGGUUCAAAUCCGCCUCCCUCCGCCA FIG. 8F (SEQ ID NO: 54) GGAGGGUGUCACGCUGGUGCGUGGGCCGGUCUUAUAAACCGGAGA UUCCUUGCCGGGAAUGGAGUUCGAUUCUCCCACCCUCCGCCA FIG. 8G (SEQ ID NO: 55) GGGGGACACAACUCGUGGGUGCGAGAGUUGGUCUUAUAAACCAAU GGCGUCGUUGCAGCGACGCAAGGUUCAAUUCCUUUGUCCCCCG FIG. 8H (SEQ ID NO: 56) GGAGGGUGUCUAGCUGGUGCUAGGACCGGCCUUAUAAGCCGGAUU ACCUUCCACGGGUAUUGGGGUCCGAUCCCCCCACCCUCCGCCA FIG. 9A (SEQ ID NO: 57) GGAGGGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCU UGAAAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA

Results

Although the S. bohemicum allo-tRNA^(SerGAG) gene is in a metabolic gene cluster, the Edaphobacter strain C40 has an allo-tRNA_(UAU) pseudogene overlapping with the ORF of a transposon-related protein. In soil and sediment metagenomic sequences, allo-tRNA genes are often found in the vicinity of a variety of toxin-antitoxin systems (Wen, et al., Pathog Dis, 70:240-249 (2014)). Among others, allo-tRNA_(UAU) species compose the most abundant allo-tRNA group (Table 3). Interestingly, they have cloverleaf structures slightly different from that of the standard allo-tRNA^(Ser), stem-destabilizing mutations as in the Edaphobacter strain C40 allo-tRNA_(UAU), and a variety of possible five-stem-junction structures (FIG. 8A-8H). To assess their ability to serve in translation, six allo-tRNA_(UAU) species with a potential Ser identity were converted to allo-tRNA_(CUA) and examined their activity in E. coli using the CAT (Ser146TAG) reporter. However, none of the six variants conferred Cm resistance in response to the amber codon, and two of them caused cell death (FIG. 8I). Thus, it is possible that most of the allo-tRNA_(UAU) species are not used for translation and instead may be associated with transposable elements or toxin-antitoxin systems.

In addition to 9/3-2 (in FIG. 7G), the amber suppressor variants of 8/4-1 and 9/3-1 allo-tRNAs translated the amber codon in E. coli. The 9/3-1 (CUA) is corresponding to allo-tRNA^(UTu1) (in FIG. 9A).

>8/4-1 (CUA) (SEQ ID NO: 61) GGAGGGCATCTTCAGTAGGTACTGGACGCCGTCTCTAAAACGGTT GCAGGGTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCG CCA >9/3-2 (SEQ ID NO: 62) GGGGTGGGGTTCCGGCTGGTGCCGGTCGCGGGCTCTAAACCCGTC AGGACGCTGCGACGCGTAAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCACTCCGCCA >9/3-1 (CUA) equals to allo-tRNAUTu1 (SEQ ID NO: 31) GGAGGGGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACTCTAAATTCCT TGAAATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA

Polycistrons formed by allo-tRNA-like sequences and other irregular tRNA sequences were discovered in metatranscriptome sequences of two forest/peat soil metatranscriptome projects. Both might be nonsense or missense suppressor tRNA, and may also be associated with a toxin-antitoxin system. Among the polycistronic tRNA groups (tRNA0, tRNA1, and tRNA2), 8/4 structures were predicted for tRNA_(GGU) species containing a G-1 and a group of tRNAs containing an extra-loop (E-loop).

Three tRNA1 species from the polycistrons were examined; a (8/4) tRNA1 with an E-loop and two tRNA1 with G-1, one of which has an 8/4 structure. The two G-1 tRNA1 species with GGU anticodon were thought to be substrates for histidyl-tRNA synthetase (HisRS), whereas the E-loop tRNA1 with U73 and GCU anticodon were thought to be a poor substrate for E. coli threonyl-tRNA synthetase (ThrRS) and/or glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS). The three tRNAs were transcribed in vitro and tested for aminoacylation with E. coli HisRS, GlyRS, and ThrRS. The two G-1 tRNA1 species were aminoacylated by E. coli HisRS, even more efficiently than E. coli tRNA^(His), despite the Thr GGU anticodon. The GUG triplet at positions 35-37 (but not the anticodon positions 34-36 in tRNA^(His)) of the two G-1 tRNA1 species might have recognized by HisRS (Tukalo, et al., Biopolymers and Cell, 29:311-323 (2013); Biou, et al., Science, 263:1404-1410 (1994); Mizutani, et al., Mol Biol Rep, 25:211-216 (1998)). Interestingly, the two G-1 tRNA1 species did not insert His in response to the ACC Thr codon at position 2 in a sfGFP variant gene in E. coli. Thus, G-1 tRNA1 species may be charged, but not used for translation. In contrast, the E-loop tRNA1 was not aminoacylated either by E. coli GlyRS or ThrRS in vitro. However, it is possible that the organisms encoding these irregular tRNAs encode a GlyRS and ThrRS capable of charging them. Alternatively, another aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase or homolog might charge them in a non-canonical manner, similar to the aminoacylation of a tRNA-like small RNA (tRNA^(Other)) by a complex of class I and II lysyl-tRNA synthetases in Bacillus cereus (Ataide, et al., EMBO Rep, 6:742-747 (2005)).

Example 6: selC* tRNA^(Cys) Functions in Translation

Materials and Methods

Identification and Analysis of Protein Sequences

BLASTp search were preformed of all genomic and metagenomic protein sequence data in the IMG and NCBI systems in order to identify cysS, selA, selB and selD genes and their homologs. To manually enlarge a metagenomic contig containing a selC* gene from Wastewater microbial communities from Syncrude, Ft. McMurray, Alberta—Microbes from Suncor tailings pond 6 2012TP6_6, BLAST searches of the raw data (SRR943333) were performed using NCBI short read archive (SRA) BLAST. Likewise, the amino-acid sequences for the selB* and cysS* genes of Desulfonema limicola Jadebusen DSM 2076 were identified by filling the gaps of the partially-sequenced genome using the raw data (SRR058919) in the NCBI SRA database. Sequence alignments and phylogenetic trees (Bootstrap N-J Tree) were made using Clustal X 2.1. The BoxShade Server was also used for the alignments.

selD Reporter Assay

WL400 [pACYC-DtseD] cells were transformed with pGFiB or one of the tRNA-expressing plasmids together with pBAD-RSF or one of the D. tiedjei cysS-expressing plasmids. Their overnight cultures were spotted onto LB agar plates supplemented with 1 μM Na₂MoO₄, 1 μM Na₂SeO₃, 50 mM sodium formate, 100 pg/mL carbenicillin, 30 pg/mL kanamycin, 100 pg/mL spectinomycin, and 0.1% 1-arabinose and grown anaerobically at 37° C. overnight. These plates were overlaid under anaerobic condition with a 0.75% top agar containing 1 mg/mL benzyl viologen, 250 mM sodium formate, and 25 mM KH₂PO₄ (pH 7.0). Within a few seconds or less than a minute, spots on the plates became dark or light purple, depending on the formate dehydrogenase activity of cells.

In Vitro Cysteinylation Assay

D. tiedjei selC* tRNA^(Cys) was prepared by T7 RNA polymerase transcription, purified in preparative 10% urea PAGE and electroeluted. The tRNA was refolded by heating at 95° C. for 3 min followed by cooling to 65° C. at a rate of 0.5° C./s. During a 3 min hold at 65° C., MgCl₂ was added to a final concentration of 10 mM. The refolding was completed by cooling to 30° C. at 0.2° C./s. tRNA was radiolabelled at the 3′-end using [α-³²P]ATP and E. coli CCA-adding enzyme as previously described (Ledoux, et al., Methods, 44:74-80 (2008)). D. tiedjei cysteinyl-tRNA synthetase (CysRS) with a His-tag was recombinantly obtained using E. coli. Aminoacylation reactions were performed in [50 mM HEPES-NaOH, pH 7.2, 50 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, 10 mM ATP, 1 mM cysteine, 1 mM DTT]. At the indicated time points, 10 μL aliquots were removed and digested by nuclease P1. 1 μL of the quenched reaction was spotted on PEI cellulose plates. [³²P]AMP and [³²P]AMP-Cys were separated with 100 mM ammonium acetate—5% acetic acid. The plates were analyzed using a PhosphorImager.

Results

selC* genes were found in isolated genomic sequences of Clostridia, Bacilli, Thermodesulfobacteria, Thermodesulfovibrio, δ-proteobacteria, a composite genome of Smithella, and a few metagenomic contigs, probably derived from Nitrospirae or δ-proteobacteria. Interestingly, selC* tRNA^(Cys) species belonging to a particular phylum or class show a unique conserved secondary arrangement. Furthermore, complete selenocysteine-inserting apparatus (consisting of the selA, selB, selC and selD genes) was identified in all selC*-containing genomes, whereas incomplete selenocysteine systems were also found in the metagenomic contigs. Strikingly, in two 6-proteobacterial subgroups, Syntrophobacterales and Desulfobacterales, a second copy of selB, referred to here as selB*, was found downstream of the selC* genes. Because selB encodes the Sec-tRNA^(Sec)-specific elongation factor, it is possible that selC* tRNA^(Cys) mimics tRNA^(Sec), both structurally and functionally, and is recognized by SeB*.

In addition to selB*, in a subgroup of Desulfobacterales, an additional copy of the cysS gene was discovered, which encodes CysRS, downstream of the selB* genes (FIG. 5A). This second copy, named cysS*, lacks the region that encodes the anticodon binding domain (ABD) of CysRS. Intriguingly, genomes with cysS* genes appear to always encode selC* tRNA^(Cys) species containing an A1:U72 base pair and an opal anticodon (UCA).

To assess the ability of selC* tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) to suppress opal codons, a reporter system was developed using the Desulfomonile tiedjei (Dt) selD gene, which has a naturally occurring UGA selenocysteine codon at position 15. The Dt selD gene was expressed together with Desulfococcus biacutus (Db) tRNA_(Cys) ^(UCA) in an E. coli ΔselD strain. Only when the UGA codon is translated as either Sec or Cys, functional selenophosphate synthase (SelD) is produced. SelD then catalyzes the synthesis of the selenophosphate needed for the conversion of Ser-tRNA^(Sec) to Sec-tRNA^(Sec) by selenocysteine synthase (SelA), which allows synthesis of selenoproteins. The overall suppression efficiency of Db tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) can then be evaluated by monitoring the activity of the Sec-containing formate dehydrogenase H (FDH_(H)) through the FDH_(H)-catalyzed reduction of benzyl viologen that results in a purple dye (Lacourciere, et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 99:9150-9153 (2002)). Expression of Db CysRS* as well as two other CysRS* did not lead to suppression of the selD opal codon.

Because Dt CysRS efficiently aminoacylated Dt selC* tRNA^(Cys) _(GCA) in vitro, a series of Dt CysRS variants were created that may recapitulate the activity of CysRS*. Because the main difference between Db CysRS* and Dt CysRS is the presence of an ABD, Dt CysRS mutant lacking the ABD (Dt CysRS ΔABD) was created. However, Dt CysRS ΔABD did not efficiently aminoacylate Db tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) as indicated by the light purple color (FIG. 5E). Multiple sequence alignments of canonical CysRS and CysRS* revealed that a highly conserved and critical Gly residue of the canonical CysRS CP1 domain (Liu, et al., RNA, 18:213-221 (2012)) was not conserved in CysRS*. This Gly is responsible for accurate recognition of first base pair of tRNA^(Cys) acceptor stem (Liu, et al., RNA, 18:213-221 (2012)), which is typically G1:C72. In Dt CysRS, this Gly residue is part of the “MSGA” motif, whereas the “MSGA” is mutated to “PTVS” in Db CysRS*.

Therefore, to test the role of this motif in the activity of Dt CysRS, the “MSGA” sequence was mutated to “PTVS” to construct the Dt CysRS PTVS mutant. Expression of Dt CysRS PTVS and Dt selD in the E. coli ΔselD strain produced a dark purple color indicating efficient aminoacylation of Db tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA). Furthermore, a Dt CysRS variant containing the ΔABD and PTVS (ΔABD/PTVS) was more efficient than the Dt CysRS PTVS as confirmed by the saturated purple color. These results show that CysRS* may have evolved to specifically aminoacylate selC* tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) species with A1:U72. This hypothesis was explored by using a Db tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) variant in which the A1:U72 base pair was mutated to G1:C72. The CysRS ΔABD/PTVS was unable to efficiently aminoacylate the G1:C72 Db tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) mutant. Lastly, the 8/4 conformation of Db tRNA^(Cys) _(UCA) was experimentally confirmed by employing a previously developed method used to confirm the 9/4 structure of eukaryotic tRNA^(Sec) (Mizutani, et al., FEBS Lett, 466:359-362 (2000). The 8-bp acceptor stem was important for efficient opal suppression, whereas the bulge structure was dispensable.

In sum, a large number of tRNAs with new secondary structures have been identified. The function of these tRNAs is still uncharted: some of them may be involved in the translation of Ser and His codons, in opal suppression or recoding with Cys, and in mis-translation of diverse codons with Ser or Ala; others may have non-translational roles. The (8/4) tRNA^(Cys) species may have co-evolved with its dedicated aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and elongation factor. Future studies should elucidate the biological functions of these non-canonical tRNAs and protein components, and structural studies of these tRNAs will add to the knowledge of the structural plasticity of tRNA.

Example 7: Allo-tRNA can Incorporate SEC in a Nascent Protein

Selenocysteine (Sec), the 21^(st) amino acid, is a fascinating building block of recombinant proteins (Metanis, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl (2017)), because Sec is more active and oxygen-resistant than cysteine (Cys) (Reich, et al., ACS Chem Biol, 11:821-841 (2016); Marques, et al., Nat Chem Biol, 13, 544-550 (2017)) and is chemically modifiable (Liu, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 139, 3430-3437 (2017); Rakauskaite, et al., Chem Commun (Camb), 51, 8245-8248 (2015)), and because a diselenide bond is more stable than a disulfide bond in proteins (Arai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 56, 5522-5526 (2017)). Furthermore, Sec residues can be chemically converted to another side chain via dehydroalanine intermediate (Liu, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 139, 3430-3437 (2017); Wright, et al., Science, 354 (6312), aag1465 (2016)). Recent advances in the genetic code expansion field allows one to site-specifically insert Sec into recombinant proteins in response to the amber UAG codon in E. coli via the elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu), without relying on the dedicated elongation factor (SelB) and Sec-insertion sequence (SECIS element) (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013); Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 42:9976-9983 (2014); Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015); Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015); Fan, et al., ACS Synth Biol. (2017)). Although wildtype tRNA^(Sec) species have antideterminants against EF-Tu (Rudinger, et al., EMBO J, 15:650-657 (1996)), a few point mutations in the acceptor stem and the T-stem of tRNA^(Sec) are sufficient to remove these antideterminants (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015); Rudinger, et al., EMBO J, 15:650-657 (1996)). Thus, EF-Tu-compatible variants of E. coli tRNA^(Sec) enabled the production of bacterial and human selenoproteins using E. coli cells (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013); Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 42:9976-9983 (2014); Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015); Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015); Fan, et al., ACS Synth Biol. (2017)). However, this Sec-insertion technology has a room for improvement in as far as product yield and the extent of Sec insertion is concerned.

Materials and Methods

Escherichia coli Strains

The ΔselABC ΔfdhF ME6 strain of Escherichia coli was reported previously (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55, 5337-5341 (2016)). E. coli HST08 strain (Clontech) was mainly used for plasmid construction.

The T7 RNAP ΔselABC ΔfdhF ME6 strain of Escherichia coli was reported in (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016, 55, 5337) E. coli ME68z strain is ME6 transformed with pBAC8z. E. coli Stellar strain (Clontech) was mainly used for plasmid construction. E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB strain was constructed from C321.ΔA.opt (Kuznetsov, et al., Genome Biol 2017, 18, 100.) by scar-less knockout of the selAB genes by recombination.

First, the selAB gene locus was replaced with a tetRA cassette generated by PCR with oligos

#AS950 (5′-ttctccgtgtgagagggccttgatcagccaggtttcctATG ACttaagacccactttcacatttaag-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 96) and #AS952 (5′-taattaatcatttccTTATTTTTCCGGAAATAATAATGCGT CGCGcctaagcacttgtctcctgtttac-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 97)) using

λ-Red-mediated recombination as described, (Lajoie, et al., Science 2013, 342, 357) resulting in strain AS358 (TetR). Next, the tetra cassette was removed using a PCR-generated DNA fragment composed of upstream and downstream regions of selAB

(ctgtgccgtcggatatctcaatttccgccgcgttgcgccaggttggtgtgtcgac cgcccacacttagtcaaactggtcgaaaacctgtttagccgcgaaagttttgctcg caccgaaccgccaaaggcttgatgcgcgatatgtcctcctgacccatctcacgtta caatccgtggttatgttaaacgcccttctccgtgtgagagggccttgatcagccag gtttccgcgacgcattattatttccggaaaaataaggaaatgattaattaagtttt aaaataaattaatacaaaattcttatgaatttaaaaaaagcacattgtttaatgaa tacaatgtgctttttattagattaattttg) (SEQ ID NO:98) by λ-Red-mediated recombination. Tetracycline-sensitive colonies were selected on plates containing fusaric acid as described, (Blank, M. Hensel, R. G. Gerlach, PLoS One 2011, 6, e15763) except anhydrotetracycline was used in place of chlortetracycline. Excision of tetRA from selAB loci was confirmed by PCR using oligos # AS1113 (5′-ctgtgccgtcggatatctcaatttc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:99)) and # AS1148 (5′-ggcagcttactgaggattttcattcg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:100)).

Construction of Plasmids

The native E. coli fdhF gene was cloned into the pACYC184 plasmid by replacing the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (cat) gene in a similar manner with a reference (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015) The UGA codon and four cysteine codons of fdhF were then mutated to UAG or AGC codons by Infusion (Clontech). The UGA codon was also changed to UCA. The SECIS element was disabled in fdhF gene variants by introducing neutral amino acid mutations by PCR using oligos fdhFam_Fno

(5′-CGTGTCtagCACGGaCCcagcGTaGCcGGatTaCAtCAAag tGTaGGTAATGGCGCAATGAGCAATGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 101)) and fdhFam_Rno (5′-tCCGTGctaGACACGAGCGCAGCAGTCAACG-3′ (SEQ  ID NO: 102)).

All tRNA sequences were cloned between the EcoRI and BglII sites into the pBAD-RSF5 plasmid (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)). The ORF of Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. pectinolytica 34mel SelA was amplified by PCR from the genomic DNA and cloned together with the EM7 promoter (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015)) immediately downstream of the kan marker gene (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)) in pBAD-RSF5 carrying allo-tRNA^(UTu) to produce pSecUAG-A.

Sequence

>allo-tRNA^(UTu) (also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu1)) (SEQ ID NO: 31) GGAGGGGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACTCTAAATTCCT TGAAATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA,

In Vivo FDH_(H) Activity Assay in E. coli

E. coli ME6 strain was transformed with indicated plasmids. The concentrations of the antibiotics were 5 or 7 pg/ml for tetracycline, 30 pg/ml for kanamycin, 34 μg/ml for chloramphenicol and 100 μg/ml for carbenicillin. Overnight cultures of transformed ME6 cells were spotted onto LB agar plates supplemented with 1 μM Na₂MoO₄, 1 μM Na₂SeO₃ unless otherwise noted, 50 mM sodium formate, 0.1% L-arabinose, and antibiotics and grown anaerobically (90% N₂, 5% H₂, 5% CO₂) at the room temperature for two days in an anaerobic tent (Coy Laboratories). When necessary, IPTG at final concentrations of 0.01 and 0.1 mM was also added into the agar plates. After incubation, these agar plates were overlaid with a top agar (0.75%) containing 1 mg/mL benzyl viologen, 250 mM sodium formate, and 25 mM KH₂PO₄ (pH 7.0) in the tent.

Results

E. coli tRNA^(Sec) and its EF-Tu-compatible variants (UTu, UTuX, UTu6, and SecUx) (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013); Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015); Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015); Fan, et al., ACS Synth Biol. (2017)) have a non-canonical 13-base pair (13-bp) amino-acid acceptor branch that is one of the important identity elements for E. coli selenocysteine synthase (SelA) that produces Sec-tRNA^(Sec) (Itoh, et al., Science, 340:75-78 (2013)). Sec-tRNA^(Sec) is synthesized in two steps in bacteria; seryl-tRNA synthetase (SerRS) attaches serine (Ser) to tRNA^(Sec); SelA converts the Ser moiety to Sec by using selenophosphate synthesized by selenophosphate synthase (SeD) (Silva, et al., J Biol Chem, 290:29178-29188 (2015)). While SelB rejects Ser-tRNA^(Sec), EF-Tu accepts both Ser-tRNA and Sec-tRNA molecules. Therefore, the Ser-tRNAs must be quickly converted to Sec-tRNA to prevent Ser-tRNA translating UAG codons via EF-Tu (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015)). Although several studies improved the purity and the yield of recombinant selenoproteins (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013); Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 42:9976-9983 (2014); Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015); Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015); Fan, et al., ACS Synth Biol. (2017)), these tRNAs with a 13-bp branch may be less compatible than canonical tRNAs having a 12-bp branch in EF-Tu-mediated translation by the ribosome.

To overcome this drawback, experiments were designed to investigate another SelA species which can recognize tRNA^(Sec) with a 12-bp branch. A close relative of E. coli, Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. pectinolytica 34mel, has one of such SelA and tRNA^(Sec) pairs (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55, 5337-5341 (2016)). EF-Tu-compatible variants of A. salmonicida tRNA^(Sec) were designed, however, they were not good amber suppressors, probably because the tRNA^(Sec) tertiary structure may not be suitable for canonical translation via EF-Tu but is optimized for SelB-mediated codon recoding (Fischer, et al., Nature, 540:80-85 (2016)). Therefore, a search for tRNA^(Ser) species which may be recognized by A. salmonicida SelA was conducted. Bacterial tRNA^(Sec) species have a characteristic tRNA elbow structure composed of the D-loop (YGGU) and the T-loop (UUCRAYU) (Y denotes C/U, while R denotes G/A; the two Ys are either C-C or U-U pairs) (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55, 5337-5341 (2016); Santesmasses, et al., PLoS Comput Biol, 13, e1005383 (2017)). This elbow structure is recognized by the N-terminal domain of SelA. The Examples above identified a new group of tRNA^(Sec)-like tRNAs (“allo-tRNAs” named after their non-canonical cloverleaf structures), some of which were revealed as tRNA^(Ser) (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)) (see also Examples above). Among them, one allo-tRNA species (referred to as “9/3-1” and “allo-tRNA^(UTu)”) (FIG. 9A), derived from a metagenomic sequence, has a 12-bp branch and tRNA^(Sec)-like D- and T-loops and functioned as active tRNA^(Ser) in E. coli (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)) (see also Examples above).

The E. coli fdhF gene encoding formate dehydrogenase H (FDH_(H)) (FIG. 9C), one of the three selenoproteins in E. coli, was used as a reporter gene to check EF-Tu-mediated Sec incorporation (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013); Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015); Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015)). The UGA codon 140 encoding the catalytic Sec140 residue was changed to UAG (FIG. 9C). Coexpression of the amber suppressor variant of allo-tRNA (9/3-1) (renamed “allo-tRNA^(UTu)”) and A. salmonicida SelA (FIG. 1A) inserted Sec into the UAG 140 position and expressed wildtype FDH_(H) which reduced benzyl viologen into a purple dye (FIG. 9C).

In order to further estimate the activity of allo-tRNA^(UTu), four Cys codons were changed at positions 8, 11, 15 and 42 to UAG in fdhF. These four Cys residues are accommodating an important iron sulfur cluster (FIG. 1B) (Boyington, et al., Science, 275:1305-1308 (1997)). A preliminary study revealed that each of the four Cys residues can be separately replaced by Sec without impairing the FDH_(H) activity but cannot be replaced by Ser (FIG. 9C). Thus, the reporter fdhF gene variants have one to five UAG codons which must be translated as Sec; premature translation stop by release factor 1 (RF-1) and Ser incorporation by Ser-allo-tRNA^(UTu) make inactive FDH_(H). The allo-tRNA^(UTu) and A. salmonicida SelA pair enabled the translation of up to five UAG codons in the reporter fdhF gene variants (FIG. 9C). Thus, the FDH_(H) variants may have up to five Sec residues. However, premature stop or Ser incorporation was also occurring, since increasing the number of UAG codons in the fdhF reading frame decreased the FDH_(H) activity of the cell spots (FIG. 9C).

Example 8: Allo-tRNA^(UTu) Improves Yield of Proteins Containing Multiple Sec Residues Relative to Other tRNA^(sec)

Materials and Methods

>tRNA^(UTuX) (SEQ ID NO: 63) GGAAGATGGTGCCGTCCGGTGAAGGCGCCGGTCTCTAAAACCGGT CGACCCGAAAGGGTTCGCAGGGTTCGACTCCCTGCATCTTCCGCC A >tRNA^(SecUx) (SEQ ID NO: 18) GGAAGATGGTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGACTCTAAATCCAGT TGGGGCCGCCAGCGGTCCCGGTCAGGTTCGACTCCTTGCATCTTC CGCCA

Results

Next allo-tRNA^(UTu) with tRNA^(UTuX) (Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015)) and tRNA^(SecUx) (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015)). For proper comparison, the two tRNA sequences were first cloned the under the araBAD promoter in the same manner as allo-tRNA^(UTu) (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)). The expression level of E. coli SelA for each of the tRNA^(UTuX) and tRNA^(SecUx)species were optimized, because excess SelA molecules completely sequestered these tRNA molecules (FIG. 11A-11C). After the optimization step, it was revealed that tRNA^(SecUx) is more active than tRNA^(UTuX) and translated two UAG codons in an fdhF variant gene (FIGS. 11A-11C and 9D). The FDH_(H) activities of cell spots expressing tRNA^(SecUx)+fdhF(2 UAG codons) and tRNA^(UTu)+fdhF(1 UAG codon) were comparable (FIG. 11A-11C). Next, the allo-tRNA^(UTu)+As SelA pair and the tRNA^(SecUx)+Ec SelA pair were compared. The E. coli pair hardly translated three UAG codons in an fdhF variant gene (FIG. 9D), probably due to the competition with RF-1 (Cheng, et al., J Biol Chem, 292:5476-5487 (2017)) which terminates translation at UAG and UAA. The FDH_(H) activity of cell spots expressing allo-tRNA^(UTu)+fdhF(4 UAG codons) was higher than that of cells expressing tRNA^(SecUx)+fdhF(2 UAG codons) (FIG. 9D). Thus, allo-tRNA^(UTu) is apparently the best in terms of the yield of proteins containing multiple Sec residues. However, tRNA^(SecUx) might be superior to allo-tRNA^(UTu) in terms of the purity of yielded selenoproteins, because 100% pure (no Ser incorporation) recombinant selenoproteins were obtained in some cases under optimal conditions by using tRNA^(SecUx) (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc, 137:46-49 (2015)).

Example 9: The Conversion Rate of Ser-Allo-tRNA^(UTu) to Sec-Allo-tRNA^(UTu) can be Improved by Modifying the Translation System

Materials and Methods

Construction of Plasmids

The A. salmonicida 34mel selD gene with its native promoter was amplified by PCR from the same genomic DNA and cloned immediately downstream of the SelA ORF of pSecUAG-A together with an intervening E. coli trp terminator sequence. The AUG start codon of the A. salmonicida selD gene was changed to GUG (designated as As selD′) by Infusion to produce pSecUAG-AD. The allo-tRNAUTu sequence of pSecUAG-AD was mutated by Infusion to make allo-tRNAUTu variants. The A. salmonicida SelA expression cassette (but not the Ttrp) was removed from these allo-tRNAUTu variant-carrying plasmids to produce pSecUAG-D series. Thus, the Ttrp is remaining between the kan gene and the As selD′ gene in pSecUAG-D series. The ORF of an Enterobacter cloacae NMC-A variant carrying two UAG codons was cloned between the kan gene and the Ttrp of pSecUAG-D-allo-tRNAUTu1D to develop pNMC-A(2×Am). The codon usage of NMC-A was optimized for use in E. coli (see below). The ORF of Treponema denticola Trx1(32UAG) (Kim, et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015, 461, 648.) was cloned immediately downstream of the As selD′ gene together with a linker sequence including a Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence (5′-TCACACAGGAAACAGACC-3′) (SEQ ID NO:76) in pSecUAG-AD to make pSecUAG-ADT. The allo-tRNAUTu sequence of pSecUAG-ADT was also mutated by Infusion to make allo-tRNAUTu variants. The araC-ParaBAD in pSecUAG-ADT plasmids was replaced with core sequences of PargW and PselC (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res 2015, 43, 8111.) by PCR using primer sets

(5′-CTACTGTTTCTCCATACCCGTTTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 103)) and (5′-TTTGAATTCAAACATGCGGCATGAGTATACCCGCTAA TGGAGTGCGGGGTAAGTACGCTGGTAACGAATCAGACAATTGA C-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 104) or 5′-TTTGAATTCAAACGGGGCGCATTATAGCTACTTCCTTG AGTTTCTACATCCCCCAGATCGGTAACGAATCAGACAATTGA C-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 105)) followed by EcoRI digestion and ligation with T4 DNA ligase.

For expressing the wildtype As SelA with Pbla, the kan gene and the As SelA ORF were linked with a linker sequence (5′-TAACCCGCCAGGT TTCCTTAATTGTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:106)) including a SD sequence and a GUG start codon for As SelA. The pSecUAG-ADT-allo-tRNAUTu2D plasmid was modified to express the As SelAEvol variant (#2.1 variant with a Pro2-to-Thr2 mutation). The ORF of the As SelAEvol variant starts with GTGACG (encoding the start Met codon and the next Thr codon), while its promoter and SD sequences were modified by Infusion; 1) EM7 promoter with the native SD sequence (5′-GAGGAACTAAACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:107)) to make pSecUAG-Evol2; 2) EM7 promoter with a weaker SD sequence (5′-GCCAGGTTTCCTTAATT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:108)) to make pSecUAG-Evol3; 3) directly linked to the Pbla-kan gene with a linker sequence (5′-TAACCCGCCAGGTTTCCTTAATT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:109)) to make pSecUAG-Evol4. To make pSecUAG-Evol1, the GTG start codon of SelAEvol was changed to ATG. The “A-S-S-A-S” (SEQ ID NO:110) and “P—Y-R” amino-acid sequences of the two SelAEvol variants are encoded with “GCC-AGT-TCT-GCT-AGT” and “CCT-TAT-CGC” codons, respectively. The E. coli sufS wildtype and C364A (Mihara, et al., J Biochem 2000, 127, 559) genes were cloned between the kan marker and the EM7 promoter of pSecUAG-Evol1/2 (see the plasmid map below). A low-copy-number plasmid pMW219 (NIPPON GENE) was modified to carry a cat gene instead of the kan marker and the multiple cloning site to make pMWcat by Infusion using the following primer sets (5′-ccactccaagaattgCAAAAAGGCCATCCG TCAGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:65) and 5′-cgtgtgcttctcaaaGAGCGCAACGC AATTAATGTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:66)) and (5′-TTTGAGAAGCACACGGTCAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:67) and 5′-CAATTCTTGGAGTGGTGAATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:68)). The As SelA expression cassette (with the Ttrp) was cloned in front of the cat gene in pMWcat to make pMWcat-AsSelA(AUG) by Infusion using the following primer sets

(5′-TCCCACAGCCGCCAGTTCCGCTGGCGGCATTTTACCCGA CGCACTTTGCGCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:69) and

5′-AGGCCCTTTCGTCTTCAAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:70)) and

(5′-aagacgaaagggcctCACGTGTTGACAATTAATCATCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:71) and

5′-ctggcggctgtgggaTCAGGGCTCCTCGGTCGCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:72)). The AUG start codon for the As SelA gene on pMWcat-AsSelA(AUG) was changed to GUG to make pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG). Note that pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG) used for mutant library construction has a deletion in the stop codon. This deletion was seemingly harmless but corrected by Infusion to make true pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG). The E. coli selA gene with its native promoter was amplified by PCR from a genomic DNA and cloned immediately downstream of the kan marker gene together with an intervening E. coli trp terminator sequence in pBAD-RSF5 carrying tRNAUTuX or tRNASecUx. The start codon of the E. coli selA gene was mutated by Infusion. In particular, pSecUx-A has tRNASecUx and an E. coli selA gene variant carrying a GUG start codon with a short insertion “UAAUU” in front of it.

The plasmid vector pTrc99A was used for the inducible expression of a few enzymes. For cloning the ORFs of A. salmonicida SelA and phosphoseryl-tRNA kinases (PTSKs) of Trypanosoma brucei (Aeby, et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 106:5088-5092 (2009)) and Homo sapiens, they were cloned between CACACAGGAAACAGACC (SEQ ID NO:73) and TGTTTTGGCGGATGAGAGAAG (SEQ ID NO:74). The codon usage of the human PSTK was partially optimized for use in E. coli (see below). The ORF of Sep-tRNA:Cys-tRNA synthetase (SepCysS) from the Parcubacteria DG_74_2 bin (Mukai, et al., MBio, 8, e00561-00517 (2017)) was cloned after the PSTK ORFs with a short upstream sequence including a ribosome binding site (TTTTAAGAAGGAGATATACAT (SEQ ID NO:75)). The plasmid vector pETDuet-1 (Novagen) was used for the inducible expression of selenoproteins. The ORF of a human GPx1(49UAG) variant having additional N-terminal MetGly sequence (for NcoI site) and a C-terminal Leu-Glu-His-His-His-His-His-His (SEQ ID NO:95) tag (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013)) was transferred from pRSFDuet-1 plasmids into the NcoI and HindIII sites of pETDuet-1. The ORF of the Grx1(C11U/C14S) variant was amplified by PCR using primer pair GRX F and GRX R (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013, 52, 1441.) and cloned into pETDuet-1 to develop pET-Grx1(11UAG/14Ser). The ORF of the Mxe GyrA intein variant with the in-frame UAG 384 codon had been cloned in plasmid MXB.RSF (Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res 2014, 42, 9976) The expression cassette of this intein reporter gene was transferred to pET-Duet1 by PCR using the following primer sets (5′-ggttttttgctga aaGGAGGAACTATATCCGGATTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:111) and

5′-GAAAGCGGGCAGTGAGCGCAAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:112)) and

(5′-tttcagcaaaaaacccctCAAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:113) and

5′-TCACTGCCCGCTTTCCAGTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:114)) to develop pET-MXB(384UAG). pMWcat-Se was constructed to express proteins and enzymes putatively involved in Se-transfer (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc 2015, 137, 46; Pryjma, et al., J Bacteriol 2012,194, 3803; bR. Hatrongjit, K. Packdibamrung, Enzyme and Microbial Technology 2010, 46, 557; cS. Nelson, Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2014, Paper 4807] as shown in its plasmid map (see below). pBAC8z was constructed by replacing the ORF of the gent marker gene of BAC7gent (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res 2010, 38, 8188.) with an artificial cistron of Sh ble and sucB(TAA stop codon) by X-Red-mediated recombination in BAC7gent-carrying Stellar cells using pKD46 (Datsenko, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97, 6640)

Sequences >Trypanosoma brucei pstk (SEQ ID NO: 89) ATGACAGTTTGTCTTGTTCTACTAACTGGGCTGCCAGGAGCGGGGAAGACGACACT AGGCAAGGCTCTTAAACAGTTGGGGGATCACATAACCCATGAACTCTCCCTCATAG TCACGGCAGTGGTGGAATTAGATGACTTTATGTGTAACGTCGGTGCGAGTAATGGG TCCCGTGTAGAGAGTACCGTTTTCGATCCAAGTCGGTGGCGAGAGGCGTTCGAAGC GGCTCGTCAGGCAACTCGCCAGGAGTTGGAGCGGTGCCTAATGATGGAGAGGAATA AAGCGGTAATGCACTTGGTTTTTCTGGTGGATCCGCTGCCATATAGGAGTATGAGA GCATCGTACTGGAAAATGTGCAAGGAATTAAGTGCCAAGTGTGCTGAGACTCACTT TCATGATTCATGGGAAGTGCAGAGCATTGTTGTCTTGTTGGAGGTGCGGATGAACA CCCCGGAGGAGGTTTGTCTCCAACGCAATGAGCTCCGCGCCGGAACCCCGCAGTAT ATTCCCCCGTATGTTATTAAGGGGATAAGTGACTCGTTTGACCGTGGTGACCTCAC TGCTGTGCTGCTGGGTACAGACGGAAATATGTGGGCCGTACTTCCCGGGCAGAAGT CGGCACCGTGGCCCGTTCTTTTACTGGTTGATGAAGTGAGATGCTGCGCGTCACCA CCCAATTTGTTGGCCACGCAGTTGCTGGAGCGTATCCGAGGGGAAGACATAATGCG TGAGATGACGGAACAACAAGTAAGTGTTTTTAATTATTACAAGTGCCAAGTGGAAG GGGGGAAGTCGAAGTGTTTGGCGAGTGGAGAAGCACATGACAACGTTAACAACTGT CTTCATCAAGTGGACCTCCACATGCGGGCAGTTGTGGGACATTACATGGTCGAGCG GCAGAGTAGTGGTTCACTGAAGCCAGGCACTGGGCAACGCGTAAGCAAATGTCGGT CGACCCACTACGCGGGAATTCGCGCAGCAATCACGAAGGGAACGAGAAACACAGGA GGATCTTTTTCCGAAGTGCAAGGACTACTGCAGCAGTTACTTTTGGAATTCGAGCA TGCCTTAGTAGATCTTTAA >Homo sapiens pstk isoform X1 (SEQ ID NO: 90) ATGAAAACCGCAGAAAATATTCGTGGCACCGGTTCAGATGGTCCGCGTAAACGTGG TCTGTGTGTTCTGTGTGGTCTGCCTGCAGCAGGTAAAAGCACCTTTGCACGTGCCC TGGCACATCGTCTGCAGCAAGAACAAGGTTGGGCAATTGGTGTTGTTGCATATGAT GATGTTATGCCGGATGCATTTCTGGCAGGCGCACGCGCACGTCCGGCACCGAGTCA GTGGAAACTGCTGCGTCAAGAACTGCTGAAATATCTGGAATATTTCCTGATGGCCG TGATTAATGGTTGTCAGATGAGCGTTCCGCCTAATCGTACCGAAGCAATGTGGGAA GATTTTATCACCTGTCTGAAAGATCAGGACCTGATTTTTAGCGCAGCATTTGAAGC ACAGAGCTGTTATCTGCTGACCAAAACAGCAGTTAGCCGTCCGCTGTTTCTGGTTC TGGATGATAATTTCTATTATCAGAGCATGCGCTATGAGGTTTATCAGCTGGCACGT AAATATAGCCTGGGTTTTTGTCAGCTGTTCCTGGATTGTCCGCTGGAAACCTGTCT GCAGCGTAATGGTCAGCGTCCGCAGGCACTGCCTCCGGAAACCATTCATCTGATGG GTCGTAAACTGGAAAAACCGAATCCGGAAAAAAATGCCTGGGAACATAATAGCCTG ACCATTCCGAGTCCGGCATGTGCAAGCGAAGCAAGCCTGGAAGTTACCGATCTGCT GCTGACCGCACTGGAAAATCCGGTTAAATATGCCGAAGATAACATGGAACAGAAAG ATACCGATCGCATTATTTGCAGCACCAACATTCTGCATAAAACCGATCAGACCCTG CGTCGTATTGTTAGCCAGACCATGAAAGAAGCAAAAGATGAACAGGTTCTGCCGCA TAATCTGAAACTGCTGGCAGAAGAACTGAATAAACTGAAAGCAGAATTCCTTGAGG ATCTGAAACAGGGCAATAAAAAGTATCTGTGTTTTCAGCAGACCATCGATATTCCG GATGTGATCAGCTTTTTCCACTATGAGAAAGATAACATCGTGCAGAAATACTTCAG CAAGCAGCATTAA >Treponema denticola Trx1(32UAG) (SEQ ID NO: 91) ATGATTATGGCAGTATTGGATATTACAAATGCTAATTTTGATGAAACCGTtAAgAC CGCCAAGCCCGTTTTAATTGACTTTTGGGCACCGTGGTAGCCGGGATGCGTACAGC TCAGTCCTGAGCTGCAGGCTGCCGAGGCGGAACTCGGCGACAAGGCTGTGATAGCA CAGTCTAACGTGGATAATGCACGTGAATTGGCAGTAAAATTTAAGTTTATGTCAAT ACCTACCCTCATCGTTTTAAAAGACGGAAAAGAGGTGGACAGGCACACAGGCTATA TGGATAAgAAGAGCCTTGTAAACTTTGTTTCAAAGCATATCTAA >pSecUAG-AD plasmid annotation misc_feature complement(5998..6876) /label = araC misc_feature 6906..127 /label = ParaBAD misc_feature 151..240 /label = allo-tRNA^(UTu) misc_feature 262..290 /label = TrrnC misc_feature 366..523 /label = rrnB T1 and T2 misc_feature join(946..1982, 1984..2116) /label = As selD with a GUG start codon misc_feature complement(2117..2149) /label = Ttrp misc_feature complement(2150..3708) /label = As SelA with an EM7 promoter >pSecUAG-AD (SEQ ID NO: 92) GTCTATAATCACGGCAGAAAAGTCCACATTGATTATTTGCACGGCGTCACACTTTG CTATGCCATAGCATTTTTATCCATAAGATTAGCGGATCCTACCTGACGCTTTTTAT CGCAACTCTCTACTGTTTCTCCATACCCGTTTGAATTCggaggggaacttctatct ggtgatagacgggaactctaaattccttgaaatgcctcgccgcattgggttcgatt cccttcccctccgccaGGATCTAGAGTCGACCTGCAGATCCTTAGCGAAAGCTAAG GATTTTTTTTAGGAATTAACCATGGATCCGAGCAGCCTGATACAGATTAAATCAGA ACGCAGAAGCGGTCTGATAAAACAGAATTTGCCTGGCGGCAGTAGCGCGGTGGTCC CACCTGACCCCATGCCGAACTCAGAAGTGAAACGCCGTAGCGCCGATGGTAGTGTG GGGTCTCCCCATGCGAGAGTAGGGAACTGCCAGGCATCAAATAAAACGAAAGGCTC AGTCGAAAGACTGGGCCTTTCGTTTTATCTGTTGTTTGTCGGTGAACGCTCTCCTG AGTAGGACAAATCCGCCGGGAGCGGATTTGAACGTTGCGAAGCAACGGCCCGGAGG GTGGCGGGCAGGACGCCCGCCATAAACTGCCAGGCATCAAATTAAGCAGAAGGCCA TCCTGACGGATGGCcgcggccGCCTCTAAACGGGTCTTGAGGGGTTTTTTGCTGAA ACCTCAGGCATTTGAGAAGCACACGGTCACACTGCTTCCGGTAGTCAATAAACCGG TAAACCAGCAATAGACATAAGCGGCTATTTAACGACCCTGCCCTGAACCGACGACA AGCTGACGACCGGGTCTCCGCAAGTGGCACTTTTCGGGGAAATGTGCGCGGAACCC CTATTTGTTTATTTTTCTAAATACATTCAAATATGTATCCGCTCATGAATCATTGG ATAACCTCGATAAACTGGTTTCCGGTATAGGCTTTCAGCTGGCCTATGGGGGAGAG GGTCAGCCCCGCTTGTGTCGCGATAGCAAGGAGCTCGGCTTCACTTTCTTTACCGA CGGCAACCAGCAAGCCGCCGCTGGTCTGCGGATCGCACATGATGTTGCGGGTGCGT TCATCCATGGCACCGAGCTTGGCGCCATAGGAATCGAAGTTGCGCAGGGTACCGCC CGGTACGCAGCCCTCGGACAGGTAGTAATCTACTTCGTCGAGCAGTGGCAGCGCCT TGAAATCGAGGGTGGCACACACCCCTGAGCCTTCGCACATCTCAAGCAGGTGTCCC GCCAGGCCAAACCCGGTCACATCCGTCATGGCGTGCACGCCGGGCAGTTCGGCAAA GCGCTGGCCAATCTTGTTGAGGGTGCACATGGCGTTGGGGGCCAGCTGCTCATGCT CTGGCTTCAATTTGCCCTTCTTCTGGGCCGTGGTGAGGATGCCGATACCGAGGGGC TTGGTCAGGTAGAGGATGTCACCCGCCTGGGCCGTGTCGTTCTGCTTGATGGCATT GAGCGGCACTATACCGGTCACAGCAAGACCGAAGATGGGCTCGGGGGCATCGATAC TGTGGCCGCCAGCCAAGGATATGCCCGCTTCATGGCACACCTGGCGGCCGCCATCT ATCACCTGCTGGGCCACTTCCGGGGCTAGGGTGTTGATGGGCCAGCCAAGGATGGC AATGGCAACGATGGGCTTGCCGCCCATGGCGTAGATGTCGCTGATGGCGTTGGTGG CCGCGATGCGGCCAAAGGTAAAGGGATCATCGACGATGGGCATGAAGAAGTCGGTG GTGGAAACAATGCCCTGACCGTTGCCGATATCGACCACGGCCGCGTCATCCTTGCT GCTGTTGCCAACCACCAGGGTCGGGTCGTCAAAGCCCGGGATCTGGCTCTTGAGAA TGGTGTCGAGCACCTTGGGAGAAATTTTGCAGCCGCAGCCAGCCCCGTGGCTGTAT TGGGTCAGACGAATGGAAGACACgattaccccttgtttggctgtttctcaagatga aacagcgtatatcaggcaaaaggagatgaccctgagcgggccattggacagggcat tatgccacaaggactctgcgggttcgaatcacaatagcctgtcgAAAATGCCGCCA GCGGAACTGGCGGCTGTGGGAtcagggctcctcggtcgcagtggtcggagtgggca gtagcaactccttgagttgggcgataagcagtgcaatctcggtcggcagcagggtc gccatattgagcagcaccttctgctggcgcacggtggcgatgaccggcaccggcag tttccgcagggcatcgagcagctgctgggccggacgcgggtcggtgcattcgagcg caggcgcagggtagaactcgtccggcagggtgccaccacccaccaccagctgggcg gggaccggcacaaagcagccgggcagggcggccatcagctgatcggcgcgggcctg catggcggcagggttgctcaaggtgcgctgggcgatgccctcgccgatgggggact tgttgagcttgtggatgagcaggcgttccagcagggagtagacgatgcggctcggg cggaaggtgcgcatcatggggtgtttttccagccgcttgatgaggtcgctgcggcc gctgatgatgcccgattgcgggccacccagcagcttgtcgccggagtagcagacca gatccgcccccgccttgatgtactgacgcaccgaggtttcgtccggtgcaaactcc tcggtggtcaagcccgagccctgatccaccgccagcaccacgtgctcgggcagggc gcgggccacctcgccaatatcgggggattcggtaaagccgcgaatggcgaaattgg atctgtgtaccatcagcaccagcgcggtctgatctgtgatggcatcgaggtaatct ttggcggtagtgatattggtggtgcccacctccaccagtttggcgccggagagcgc cagaatgtcgggaatgcgaaagccgccaccaatctggatctgttcgccccgcgaga cgatcacctcgcgccccttggctatctcctgcagcagcaagaagagcgaagcggcg ttgttgttgaccaccagcgaatcctcggcctgggtgaggcaacggagcaggggggc gatcagccccttgcgcccgccgcgcttgccggtggcgagatccagttccagattgt tgtagccagtgttgaggtcgcgcacctcgtcccacagctcgcgacttagcggcgag cgccccagattggtgtgcaccagggtgccggtggcgttgatcacccgggtctgacg ttggcgcagctgctgctggcaacgcttggcaatcagtgcctcgatttgctcggggg caaccccatgctggcgaaatgcctcgctctggcgcaattcgctcaggacatcgcgc accgcctgggtcaccagcgggcggctcagcgcctcgataaaaccggtgagaaaggg ttgctgcagcagctgttccacttgcggtagacggcgcgcttgttgctggctgggct gtggcagtgaatctggcagtgaatctggcagtgaatcgtcggcagtgggacatgat tcgggctgactgtgagagtgggcgatggctggcgcgtgagacgagttcggcatggt ttagttcctcaccttgtcgtattatactatgccgatatactatgccgatgattaat tgtcaacacgtgTTAATTCTTAGAAAAACTCATCGAGCATCAAATGAAACTGCAAT TTATTCATATCAGGATTATCAATACCATATTTTTGAAAAAGCCGTTTCTGTAATGA AGGAGAAAACTCACCGAGGCAGTTCCATAGGATGGCAAGATCCTGGTATCGGTCTG CGATTCCGACTCGTCCAACATCAATACAACCTATTAATTTCCCCTCGTCAAAAATA AGGTTATCAAGTGAGAAATCACCATGAGTGACGACTGAATCCGGTGAGAATGGCAA AAGTTTATGCATTTCTTTCCAGACTTGTTCAACAGGCCAGCCATTACGCTCGTCAT CAAAATCACTCGCATCAACCAAACCGTTATTCATTCGTGATTGCGCCTGAGCGAGA CGAAATACGCGGTCGCTGTTAAAAGGACAATTACAAACAGGAATCGAATGCAACCG GCGCAGGAACACTGCCAGCGCATCAACAATATTTTCACCTGAATCAGGATATTCTT CTAATACCTGGAATGCTGTTTTCCCGGGGATCGCAGTGGTGAGTAACCATGCATCA TCAGGAGTACGGATAAAATGCTTGATGGTCGGAAGAGGCATAAATTCCGTCAGCCA GTTTAGTCTGACCATCTCATCTGTAACATCATTGGCAACGCTACCTTTGCCATGTT TCAGAAACAACTCTGGCGCATCGGGCTTCCCATACAATCGATAGATTGTCGCACCT GATTGCCCGACATTATCGCGAGCCCATTTATACCCATATAAATCAGCATCCATGTT GGAATTTAATCGCGGCCTAGAGCAAGACGTTTCCCGTTGAATATGGCTCATACTCT TCCTTTTTCAATATTATTGAAGCATTTATCAGGGTTATTGTCTCATGAGCGGATAC ATATTTGAATGTATTTAGAAAAATAAACAAATAGGCATGCAGCGCTCTTCCGCTTC CTCGCTCACTGACTCGCTACGCTCGGTCGTTCGACTGCGGCGAGCGGTGTCAGCTC ACTCAAAAGCGGTAATACGGTTATCCACAGAATCAGGGGATAAAGCCGGAAAGAAC ATGTGAGCAAAAAGCAAAGCACCGGAAGAAGCCAACGCCGCAGGCGTTTTTCCATA GGCTCCGCCCCCCTGACGAGCATCACAAAAATCGACGCTCAAGCCAGAGGTGGCGA AACCCGACAGGACTATAAAGATACCAGGCGTTTCCCCCTGGAAGCTCCCTCGTGCG CTCTCCTGTTCCGACCCTGCCGCTTACCGGATACCTGTCCGCCTTTCTCCCTTCGG GAAGCGTGGCGCTTTCTCATAGCTCACGCTGTTGGTATCTCAGTTCGGTGTAGGTC GTTCGCTCCAAGCTGGGCTGTGTGCACGAACCCCCCGTTCAGCCCGACCGCTGCGC CTTATCCGGTAACTATCGTCTTGAGTCCAACCCGGTAAGACACGACTTATCGCCAC TGGCAGCAGCCATTGGTAACTGATTTAGAGGACTTTGTCTTGAAGTTATGCACCTG TTAAGGCTAAACTGAAAGAACAGATTTTGGTGAGTGCGGTCCTCCAACCCACTTAC CTTGGTTCAAAGAGTTGGTAGCTCAGCGAACCTTGAGAAAACCACCGTTGGTAGCG GTGGTTTTTCTTTATTTATGAGATGATGAATCAATCGGTCTATCAAGTCAACGAAC AGCTATTCCgggccggcCGGAGCCTATGGAAAAACGCCAGCAACGCGGCCTTTTTA CGGTTCCTGGCCTTTTGCTGGCCTTTTGCTCACATGTTCTTTCCTGCGTTATCCCC TGATTCTGTGGATAACCGTATTACCGCCTTTGAGTGAGCTGATACCGCTCGCCGCA GCCGAACGACCGAGCGCAGCGAGTCAGTGAGCGAGGAAGCGGAAGAGCGCCTGATG CGGTATTTTCTCCTTACGCATCTGTGCGGTATTTCACACCGCATATGGTGCACTCT CAGTACAATCTGCTCTGATGCCGCATAGTTAAGCCAGTATACACTCCGCTATCGCT ACGTGACTGGGTCATGGCTGCGCCCCGACACCCGCCAACACCCGCTGACGCGCCCT GACGGGCTTGTCTGCTCCCGGCATCCGCTTACAGACAAGCTGTGACCGTCTCCGGG AGCTGCATGTGTCAGAGGTTTTCACCGTCATCACCGAAACGCGCGAGGCAGCAGAT CAATTCGCGCGCGAAGGCGAAGCGGCATGCATAATGTGCCTGTCAAATGGACGAAG CAGGGATTCTGCAAACCCTATGCTACTCCGTCAAGCCGTCAATTGTCTGATTCGTT ACCAATTATGACAACTTGACGGCTACATCATTCACTTTTTCTTCACAACCGGCACG GAACTCGCTCGGGCTGGCCCCGGTGCATTTTTTAAATACCCGCGAGAAATAGAGTT GATCGTCAAAACCAACATTGCGACCGACGGTGGCGATAGGCATCCGGGTGGTGCTC AAAAGCAGCTTCGCCTGGCTGATACGTTGGTCCTCGCGCCAGCTTAAGACGCTAAT CCCTAACTGCTGGCGGAAAAGATGTGACAGACGCGACGGCGACAAGCAAACATGCT GTGCGACGCTGGCGATATCAAAATTGCTGTCTGCCAGGTGATCGCTGATGTACTGA CAAGCCTCGCGTACCCGATTATCCATCGGTGGATGGAGCGACTCGTTAATCGCTTC CATGCGCCGCAGTAACAATTGCTCAAGCAGATTTATCGCCAGCAGCTCCGAATAGC GCCCTTCCCCTTGCCCGGCGTTAATGATTTGCCCAAACAGGTCGCTGAAATGCGGC TGGTGCGCTTCATCCGGGCGAAAGAACCCCGTATTGGCAAATATTGACGGCCAGTT AAGCCATTCATGCCAGTAGGCGCGCGGACGAAAGTAAACCCACTGGTGATACCATT CGCGAGCCTCCGGATGACGACCGTAGTGATGAATCTCTCCTGGCGGGAACAGCAAA ATATCACCCGGTCGGCAAACAAATTCTCGTCCCTGATTTTTCACCACCCCCTGACC GCGAATGGTGAGATTGAGAATATAACCTTTCATTCCCAGCGGTCGGTCGATAAAAA AATCGAGATAACCGTTGGCCTCAATCGGCGTTAAACCCGCCACCAGATGGGCATTA AACGAGTATCCCGGCAGCAGGGGATCATTTTGCGCTTCAGCCATACTTTTCATACT CCCGCCATTCAGAGAAGAAACCAATTGTCCATATTGCATCAGACATTGCCGTCACT GCGTCTTTTACTGGCTCTTCTCGCTAACCAAACCGGTAACCCCGCTTATTAAAAGC ATTCTGTAACAAAGCGGGACCAAAGCCATGACAAAAACGCGTAACAAAAGT pMWcat_Se FEATURES Location/Qualifiers misc_feature 1..392 /label = partition (par) locus misc_feature 482..492 /label = dnaA binding misc_feature 547..558 /labe1 = IHF binding misc_feature 577..601 /label = RepA binding misc_feature 692..697 /label = -35 misc_feature 714..719 /label = -10 misc_feature 750..1700 /label = repA misc_feature 1614..1614 /label = T misc_feature complement(2020..2906) /label = cat misc_feature complement(2907..4654) /label = Ec trxA(Amb)-BstFDH misc_feature complement(4655..4912) /label = Ec ytiA misc_feature complement(4926..6519) /label = Ec yedEF misc_feature complement(6520..6553) /label = Trho misc_feature complement(6561..7727) /label = Td SCL misc_feature complement(7740..7789) /label = PcsdA misc_feature complement(7790..8050) /label = Td DUF3343 misc_feature complement(8066..9283) /label = Ec trxB ORIGIN (SEQ ID NO: 115) GACAGTAAGACGGGTAAGCCTGTTGATGATACCGCTGCCTTACTGGGTGCATTAGC CAGTCTGAATGACCTGTCACGGGATAATCCGAAGTGGTCAGACTGGAAAATCAGAG GGCAGGAACTGCTGAACAGCAAAAAGTCAGATAGCACCACATAGCAGACCCGCCAT AAAACGCCCTGAGAAGCCCGTGACGGGCTTTTCTTGTATTATGGGTAGTTTCCTTG CATGAATCCATAAAAGGCGCCTGTAGTGCCATTTACCCCCATTCACTGCCAGAGCC GTGAGCGCAGCGAACTGAATGTCACGAAAAAGACAGCGACTCAGGTGCCTGATGGT CGGAGACAAAAGGAATATTCAGCGATTTGCCCGAGCTTGCGAGGGTGCTACTTAAG CCTTTAGGGTTTTAAGGTCTGTTTTGTAGAGGAGCAAACAGCGTTTGCGACATCCT TTTGTAATACTGCGGAACTGACTAAAGTAGTGAGTTATACACAGGGCTGGGATCTA TTCTTTTTATCTTTTTTTATTCTTTCTTTATTCTATAAATTATAACCACTTGAATA TAAACAAAAAAAACACACAAAGGTCTAGCGGAATTTACAGAGGGTCTAGCAGAATT TACAAGTTTTCCAGCAAAGGTCTAGCAGAATTTACAGATACCCACAACTCAAAGGA AAAGGACTAGTAATTATCATTGACTAGCCCATCTCAATTGGTATAGTGATTAAAAT CACCTAGACCAATTGAGATGTATGTCTGAATTAGTTGTTTTCAAAGCAAATGAACT AGCGATTAGTCGCTATGACTTAACGGAGCATGAAACCAAGCTAATTTTATGCTGTG TGGCACTACTCAACCCCACGATTGAAAACCCTACAAGGAAAGAACGGACGGTATCG TTCACTTATAACCAATACGCTCAGATGATGAACATCAGTAGGGAAAATGCTTATGG TGTATTAGCTAAAGCAACCAGAGAGCTGATGACGAGAACTGTGGAAATCAGGAATC CTTTGGTTAAAGGCTTTGAGATTTTCCAGTGGACAAACTATGCCAAGTTCTCAAGC GAAAAATTAGAATTAGTTTTTAGTGAAGAGATATTGCCTTATCTTTTCCAGTTAAA AAAATTCATAAAATATAATCTGGAACATGTTAAGTCTTTTGAAAACAAATACTCTA TGAGGATTTATGAGTGGTTATTAAAAGAACTAACACAAAAGAAAACTCACAAGGCA AATATAGAGATTAGCCTTGATGAATTTAAGTTCATGTTAATGCTTGAAAATAACTA CCATGAGTTTAAAAGGCTTAACCAATGGGTTTTGAAACCAATAAGTAAAGATTTAA ACACTTACAGCAATATGAAATTGGTGGTTGATAAGCGAGGCCGCCCGACTGATACG TTGATTTTCCAAGTTGAACTAGATAGACAAATGGATCTCGTAACCGAACTTGAGAA CAACCAGATAAAAATGAATGGTGACAAAATACCAACAACCATTACATCAGATTCCT ACCTACATAACGGACTAAGAAAAACACTACACGATGCTTTAACTGCAAAAATTCAG CTCACCAGTTTTGAGGCAAAATTTTTGAGTGACATGCAAAGTAAGCATGATCTCAA TGGTTCGTTCTCATGGCTCACGCAAAAACAACGAACCACACTAGAGAACATACTGG CTAAATACGGAAGGATCTGAGGTTCTTATGGCTCTTGTATCTATCAGTGAAGCATC AAGACTAACAAACAAAAGTAGAACAACTGTTCACCGTTACATATCAAAGGGAAAAC TGTCCATATGCACAGATGAAAACGGTGTAAAAAAGATAGATACATCAGAGCTTTTA CGAGTTTTTGGTGCATTCAAAGCTGTTCACCATGAACAGATCGACAATGTAACAGA TGAACAGCATGTAACACCTAATAGAACAGGTGAAACCAGTAAAACAAAGCAACTAG AACATGAAATTGAACACCTGAGACAACTTGTTACAGCTCAACAGTCACACATAGAC AGCATTACGCCCCGCCCTGCCACTCATCGCAGTACTGTTGTAATTCATTAAGCATT CTGCCGACATGGAAGCCATCACAGACGGCATGATGAACCTGAATCGCCAGCGGCAT CAGCACCTTGTCGCCTTGCGTATAATATTTGCCCATGGTGAAAACGGGGGCGAAGA AGTTGTCCATATTGGCCACGTTTAAATCAAAACTGGTGAAACTCACCCAGGGATTG GCTGAGACGAAAAACATATTCTCAATAAACCCTTTAGGGAAATAGGCCAGGTTTTC ACCGTAACACGCCACATCTTGCGAATATATGTGTAGAAACTGCCGGAAATCGTCGT GGTATTCACTCCAGAGCGATGAAAACGTTTCAGTTTGCTCATGGAAAACGGTGTAA CAAGGGTGAACACTATCCCATATCACCAGCTCACCGTCTTTCATTGCCATACGGAA TTCCGGATGAGCATTCATCAGGCGGGCAAGAATGTGAATAAAGGCCGGATAAAACT TGTGCTTATTTTTCTTTACGGTCTTTAAAAAGGCCGTAATATCCAGCTGAACGGTC TGGTTATAGGTACATTGAGCAACTGACTGAAATGCCTCAAAATGTTCTTTACGATG CCATTGGGATATATCAACGGTGGTATATCCAGTGATTTTTTTCTCCATTTTAGCTT CCTTAGCTCCTGAAAATCTCGATAACTCAAAAAATACGCCCGGTAGTGATCTTATT TCATTATGGTGAAAGTTGGAACCTCTTACGTGCCGATCAACGTCTCATTTTCGCCA AAAGTTGGCCCAGGGCTTCCCGGTATCAACAGGGACACCAGGATTTATTTATTCTG CGAAGTGATCTTCCGTCACAGGTATTTATTCGGCGCAAAGTGCGTCGGGTTTAGGT CAGACGATAGCTCTGTGCACCTGTACCTGCCAGTGTACCACCATCCACAATCAGAT ATTCGTTACGAATCGGTTTACCATCAAACCAACACTGCAGAATTTCCAGGGTGCCT GCTGCATAACGTGCCTGTGCGCTCAGGCTGGTGCCGCTAATATGCGGTGTCATACC ATTAAACGGCATGGTACGCCACGGATGATCTGCCGGTGCAGGCTGCGGAAACCAAA CATCACCACCATAACCTGCCAGATGACCGCTGGTCACTGCACGAACAACGGCATCA CGATCAACCAGTTTTGCACGTGCGGTATTAACCAGATAGGCACCACGTTTCATACG TGCAATCATGGCTGCATCAAACAGGTGTTCGGTGCTCGGATACAGCGGAATCTGCA GGTTAACAATATCAACTGCGCCTGCCAGGCTTGCTGCATCGGCATGATAGGTCAGG GCCAGTTCTTGTTCAATTGCGGCATCCAGACGATGACGCTGGGTATAATGCAGATG CAGACCAAACGGTTTCAGACGACGCAGAACTGCCAGACCAATACGACCTGCACCAA CGGTGCCAAAATGCATACCTTCAACATCATAGCTACGGCTAACACAATCTGCAATA TTCCAACCACCTTGCTGTGCAATTTCATGGCTCGGCAGATAATTACGAACCAGTGC CAGGGTTGTCATCACAACATGTTCGGCAACGCTAATGCTATTGCTACCGGTAACTT CTGCAACGGTAATATGTGCACGTGCTGCTGCATCCAGATCAACATGATCGCTACCA ATACCTGCTGTCAGTGCCAGTTTCAGTTTCGGTGCACGGGCAATACGTTCTGCGGT CAGATATGCAGGCCAAAACGGCTGGCTAATAACAACATCTGCTTCCGGCAGACGAC GTTCAAATTCGCTATCCGGACCATCTTTATCGCTGGTAACAATCAGGGTATGACCA TGTGCTTCCAGATAACCACGCAGACCCAGTGCACCGCTAACGCTACCAACCAGTTC ACCCGGACGAAAACCCAGCGGACCTGCCGGTGTCGGTGCGGTCTGACCATCTGCAT ACTGGGTAATAACCGGAATTGCATCACGAACATAACGAGGCGGATAACCATCAACA GGATCCGGATACAGAACACACAGAACGGTTGCAGAGCCAGAACCAGACGCCAGGTT AGCGTCGAGGAACTCTTTCAACTGACCTTTAGACAGTGCACCCACTTTGGTTGCCG CCACTTCACCGTTTTTGAACAGCAGCAGAGTCGGGATACCACGGATGCCATATTTC GGCGCAGTGCCAGGGTTTTGATCGATGTTCAGTTTTGCAACGGTCAGTTTGCCCTG ATATTCGTCAGCGATTTCATCCAGAATCGGGGCGATCATTTTGCACGGACCCTACC ACTCTGCCCAGAAATCGACGAGGATCGCCCCGTCCGCTTTGAGTACATCCGTGTCA AAACTGTCGTCAGTCAGGTGAATAATTTTATCGCTCATATATAACTCCACAGGAAT AAGCCTGGCGTGTTGGTTTCGTTGTTGGTGTAACATTAACCAACTAAAGGTTGACT TTATTTCACCGGATACGCTTTCGTAAAGCAATAGTAAGCTGATATTCTACCACACT ATGAGCAAAACACATTTAACAGAACAGAAGTTTTCCGACTTCGCCCTGCATCCGAA GGTTGTAGAAGCCCTTGAAAAAAAAGGGTTTCATAACTGTACGCCCATTCAGGCAC TGGCCCTTAACGCGGAGAAACCCCGTAATGTGCAATGCAGCGCCAGACACCATCCT GCTGGCAATAAATTGACTCAGTCAGCCCAGGGATCACCCATTGTATTTCCTCGCCG GGGGGACAGGTCAGCCAAATGCATAACCCGCAGCCGCCGCGTAAATCACGGGGAAT ATCGCTGACGCGAAAAGTCATGCCCGCTGCCTGCAACGCTTTGCGGGTTTGTATGA CGCCGACCGTGGAGTGAAATAAAAATAAAAACTCTTTCATCGGCGTGTCCTCATTA CTTCTGAATTAAATAACGAATGGTCGGCCCGTCTTGCTGAATATCCAGCACCGTAT AGCCGTGATTACGCGCATCCAGTGGAATATTATTGATCGACTGCGGACAGTCGCTC ACCACTTCCAGGATTTCCCCTTTTTTTAACTGCGGCATCGCCTCAAGGGTTGCGAC TGCCGGATAAGGGCAGGGTTCACCCACCATATCAAGGCGGTAATCAGGAACGATAT TTTTCATGCGATCTCCTTAGCAGTCTGCGGTGCCGCACGGCGGAAGAAGCGTTTTT CCCAGCCGATAATCAACATCAGCGCAGCAAACAACAGCAAATATGTCACCAGCAGG CCACCCATCGGACCAAAGGTTTTCAGCAGGTTGATTTTGTCCCAGTCGGTGGCCAG CGCCGGAGCGAAATCATCCCAGTAATACGCCAGAATCGTTGAGCCGATCACATTGC CCAGACCGACCCACCAGTAGTGCACCTGGCCTTCTACCGCGCGGTACATCCAGCCG GTTTCGCAGCCGCCAGCCAGCACGATGCCAAAACCAAACAGTAAACCACCAATTAC CGCGTTTGGTCCCGCCCACATGATTTTGGGTTCAACGCCTAACTGTACGTAACTGA AGATCCCGATGGCACTCACCGCCATACCGATAATGATTGCTTTCGCCATATGGGTA CGTCCGGTGATCCACATATCGCGGAACGCTGAAGTAAAGCAGATTTGCGCACGTTC AATCAGTAAACCAAAGCCGACGCCAAACAGCATTGCCAGCCCCAGTTTGGGTTGGT TCATCGCTGTGAGCAGCGCCCAGCCCAGCATGCCGAAAAAGACCAGCATCCCGAGA CGAAAACGACGCCGCGCCTGATCCGGTTTTTGCGTCAGCGGTGAGGCGGCAGAAAC TTTCTGCATTTTCACGGGAATACGGAAGATGGGCAGCAGGGTAAAGCGCGCGCCAA ACCATGAACCAATGGCAGTGGCGATGGCAAAGAACCAGGCATGCAGCGAGAACTGA GGAATACCGGTAAAGAACGCCGCCAGGTTACAGCCCATTGCCAGACGCGCGCCAAA ACCGGCGATAATGCCGCCAATGATGGCCTGCATAATGCGGATACGGCTGCGCGGCA TTCGCAGTTTGACATTGTTGGCCCACAGCGCTGCGGCAAAGCAGCCGCCAAACATA CCGAGGATCATCATCCCGTCGATGCGGGTTAATGGCGATCCTTCCAGATGGATAAT TTTAAAGTAACCCCACTCTTCAGCATGGACGCCGAACAGTTGCAGGAGCTGGCCGC CCCAACGGGTAAATTCACCCGTGACAGCCCAAAAGGTGCCAGTAATGCCAAAATAG TAAGTAGAGAGAATACCCGCCGCGATGACCGCAGGGATGGGGGCCCAGAATTTAAT CAACCAGGCGTGTTTGAATTGCTGCCATGACATGAATGTAGCCTCTGAACTCAGAA GGTTTGAAACAAGAGTCGCGAATCATACACCATGCAAATTTATTTTCGGGGTAATA ATTCACAAAAATAATAGTTAGATCAAATTTCTCTCTGAACCTTGAAAGGCTGGCGA CATCAGGGCTTTAATGCCACAATATAAAAGCAAAACGCCACGTAAACACGTGGCGT TCTCGAGATTATGCACGCGGACACAGTTCTTTAATGGCACGGATTGCGGTTTCGAT TTCTTCTTCAATGGTAAACGGACCGGTGCTAAAACGAACTGTACCCTGCGGAAATG TACCAATGCTTTTATGTGCGCTCGGGCTACAATGCAGACCACAACGGGTCAGAATG CCATATTTCTCTTCCAGGCTTGCACCGGCTTCGGCATTGTCCATAAATTCGCTGAA ATCAATGCTCACAATACCAACACGATTTTCTGCGCTTTCACCACCGGCAATTTTGA TCGGCAGGCCTTTAATACCATCCAGAAACAGTTTCAGCAGTTTCTGTTCGCGTTTA TGGATATTCTGAATGCCAAATGCATCCAGCCATTTCAGGCTATGATGCAGACCTGC AATACCAATAATGTTCTGGGTGCCTGCTTCAAATTTATCCGGCATAAAGCTCGGGG TTTCTTCGCTATCGCTTGCGCTGCCGGTGCCACCGGTAATCAGCGGTTCGACTTCT TTGGCAAAATCTTTATCAAACAGAATACCACCGGTGCCTTGCGGACCCAGCAGACC TTTATGACCGGTAAAACAAAATGCTGCCGGATTCAGCTGGGTCAGATCAACCGGAA TATGACCTGCGCTCTGTGCACCATCAATCACCAGCGGAATATTATGTTTCTTCAGG ATGCTGGCAATTTCTTCAATCGGCTGAATAAAACCGGTCACATTGCTTGCATGGCT GAATACGGCCAGACGTGTTTCCGGACGAATCATGCTTTCAATCAGGCTGGTATCAA CAAAGGTGCCACCATTCTTCAGAATTGCCGGAACGCGATCAATTTTAACACCAATT TTCTCCATCTGAACCAGCGGACGCATAACTGCATTATGTTCAAAGCTGCTGGTCAG AACACGATCACCGCTTTTCAGAAAGCCTTTAATGATATAGTTCAGGCTTGCGGTAA CACCGCTGGTGAAGATCACATGCGTTGCAGGCTGAAAGTTAAACAGTTTACACAGC AGTTCACGGGTTTCAATAACTGCCAGACCTGCTTCTTCGGTTTCGGTATAGGTGCT ACGATTAATGTTACCGGTGCCCATATTCAGTGCCATTGCCAGTGCCTGATCCAGAC CAGGTGTTTTCGGAAATGCACCCGCTGCATTATCCAGAAAGATGCGTTTCTTCATG GAAGAATTCCTTTAGGCGTTAATTTTAGCCTGTTAATCAATACTATTAAGATTTAT TAATCTTAAACCTCGACATATTTACCATCCTCGCTCAGATAATAGAAGGCGTCGTA ATCAAACTGGCTGAAATAATCTTTGTCGAAGGCCAGACCTTCTTTGAAAATCAGTT TCAGTGCGGTGCCACAGCTGCTGCTAACGCTACGCGGAACCGGAACCAGTTTTGCG GTCAGTTCACCGGTCTTAGCATTATCGGTTTTATTCACTGCACGCATACAAACCAG GCTATCATAATGGGTGTGAAAGGTGATCAGGTACTCTTTCATGGTCTGTTTCCTAA ATTATTTTGCGTCAGCTAAACCATCGAGGTAGCGTTCCGCATCAAGTGCTGCCATG CAGCCTGTACCGGCCGAAGTAATGGCCTGGCGATAAATGTGATCCATCACGTCGCC TGCGGCAAAGACGCCAGGAATGCTGGTCTGGGTGGCATTACCATGAATACCCGACT GTACTTTGATGTAGCCGTTTTCCAGTTCCAGCTGCCCTTCGAAAATCGCAGTATTC GGGCTGTGACCGATAGCAACAAACAGACCGGCAACGTCGAGTGACTCGATGTTATC GCTGTTTTGCGTATCGCGCAGACGAACGCCAGTGACACCCATTTGATCGCCGGTCA CTTCTTCCAGCGTACGGTTGGTGTGCAGAATGATGTTGCCGTTCTCCACTTTATCC ATCAGGCGCTTAATGAGGATTTTTTCCGCGCGGAAACCGTCACGGCGGTGAATCAG ATGCACTTCCGAAGCGATGTTAGACAGATACAGCGCCTCTTCAACCGCGGTATTGC CGCCGCCGATGACCGCAACTTTCTGGTTGCGATAGAAGAAACCGTCGCAGGTTGCA CAAGCAGAAACCCCACGGCCTTTAAAGGCTTCTTCAGAGGGCAGGCCGAGATAGCG TGCAGAAGCTCCGGTGGCAATAATCAGCGCGTCGCAAGTGTATTCGCCGTTATCGC CATTCAGACGGAACGGACGGTTTTGCAGATCCACCTTGTTGATATGATCAAAAATG ATCTCAGTTTCAAACTTGGTGGCATGTTCGTGCATGCGCTCCATTAATAACGGACC GGTCAGATCGTTTGGATCGCCAGGCCAGTTTTCCACTTCCGTGGTGGTGGTCAGTT GGCCGCCTTTTTCCATGCCGGTAATCAGCACAGGTTGCAGGTTGGCGCGCGCCGCG TAGACAGCAGCGGTGTATCCCGCCGGGCCTGAACCCAGGATAAGCAGTTTACTGTG TTTGGTCGTGCCCATGAGATCCCCATAGTTGTTGGCAGACAATGGGCAGGATTGTA GGGAATTTACAGACGTAAAAAAAGAGTATGACGATTTTGTTAACAATTTGTGCAAT CGGCAGCATCGATAAGCAGGTCAAATTCTCCCGTCATTATCACCTCTGCTACTTAA ATTTCCCGCTTTATAAGCCGATTAAATGATGAATAAACGCCCCTGTTAATGAATAT CTGGCATGTTGTACTAAAAATCGATGTTTTGCTTTGACAATCCAGGCCCTTTCGTC TTCAAGAATT >Homo sapiens GPx1(49UAG)-6His (SEQ ID NO: 93) ATGGGCATGTGTGCTGCTCGGCTAGCGGCGGCGGCGGCGGCGGCCCAGTCGGTGTA TGCCTTCTCGGCGCGCCCGCTGGCCGGCGGGGAGCCTGTGAGCCTGGGCTCCCTGC GGGGCAAGGTACTACTTATCGAGAATGTGGCGTCCCTCTAGGGCACCACGGTCCGG GACTACACCCAGATGAACGAGCTGCAGCGGCGCCTCGGACCCCGGGGCCTGGTGGT GCTCGGCTTCCCGTGCAACCAGTTTGGGCATCAGGAGAACGCCAAGAACGAAGAGA TTCTGAATTCCCTCAAGTACGTCCGGCCTGGTGGTGGGTTCGAGCCCAACTTCATG CTCTTCGAGAAGTGCGAGGTGAACGGTGCGGGGGCGCACCCTCTCTTCGCCTTCCT GCGGGAGGCCCTGCCAGCTCCCAGCGACGACGCCACCGCGCTTATGACCGACCCCA AGCTCATCACCTGGTCTCCGGTGTGTCGCAACGATGTTGCCTGGAACTTTGAGAAG TTCCTGGTGGGCCCTGACGGTGTGCCCCTACGCAGGTACAGCCGCCGCTTCCAGAC CATTGACATCGAGCCTGACATCGAAGCCCTGCTGTCTCAAGGGCCCAGCTGTGCCC TCGAGCACCACCACCACCACCACTAA >Parcubacteria DG_74_2 bin SepCysS (SEQ ID NO: 94) ATGATCTACAAACGCCAGAACAAAAACAAAATTAACATCAACCCGATTCAGGCAGG CGGTATTCTGACCAAAGATGCACGTAAAACCCTGATTGAATGGGGTGATGGTTATA GCGTTTGCGATATTTGGTATAGCGGCAAAATCGATAAAATCGAAAATCCGCAGATC CGCAAATTCATCAATGAAGATCTGCCGAAATTTCTGGGTAGCGATATTGCACGTAT TATTGGTGGTGCACGTGAAGGTATTTGTGCAATTATGCATGCAGTTGCAAAACCGG GTGATATTATTCTGGTGGATGAGAACAAACACTATACCACCATTCTGGCAGCAGAA AAAAATGGTCTGAAAGTTGTTGAAGTTCCGAATAGCGGTCATCCGGAATACAAAAT TGATGTGCGCGATTATGAAAAACTGATCAAAAAACATAAACCGGCACTGATCCTGC TGACCTATCCGGATGGTAATTATGGTAATATGCCGGATGCAAAAAAACTGGGCGAA ATCGTGATCAAATATAACATTCCGTATCTGCTGAATGCAGCATATAGCGCAGGTCG TCTGCCGGTTGATCTGATTGCAATTAATGGTGATTTTATTGTGGCCAGCGGTCATA AAAGCATGGCAGCAAGCGAACCGATTGGTGTTCTGGGTTTTCGTAAAAAATGGAAA GACACCCTGTTCAAAAAAAGCTTCTTCTATCCGGACAAAGAGATTGAATTCCTGGG CCATTATCAGAAAGGTGCACCGATGATGACCCTGATGGCAAGCTTTCCGTATGTGA AAAAACGTGTTGAAGAGTGGGAAAAACAAATCGAGAAAGCACGTTGGTTTAGCGCA GAAATGGAAAAACTGGGTTTTAAACAGCTGGGTGAAAAACCGCATAATCACGATCT GCTGTTTTTCGAATCACCGCAGCTGTACAAAATTAGCCAGAAACATAAAGAGGGTC GGTTTTTCCTGTACAAAGAACTGAAAAAAAAAGGCATCTACGGCATTAAACCGGGT CTGACGAAACATTTTAAACTGAGCACCTTTGCAGCCAGCAAAGAGGAACTGAAAAA ACTGCTGGAAGTGTTCAAAGAGATCCTGATTAAATAA

GPx1 Expression and Purification

E. coli ME6 cells transformed with pSecUAG-AD and pET-GPx1(49UAG) were grown in LB media containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin, 25 μg/ml kanamycin, 10 μM or 100 μM Na₂SeO₃ at 37° C. until the A600 reached 0.8. In order to raise the Na₂SeO₃ concentration to 100 μM, a solution of 50 mg/ml L-cystine in 1N HCl was made and added into the growth medium at a final concentration of 100 μg/ml together with 1/5 volume of 5N NaOH for the neutralization of the medium (31). The culture was then induced by the addition of 1 mM IPTG and 0.1% L-arabinose, and then shifted to 25° C. for approximately 16 h before harvesting. The cells were harvested and resuspended in buffer A [50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5), 300 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgC₂, 10% glycerol, 2 mM 2-mercaptoethanol (or 1 mM DTT), 0.5 mg/ml lysozyme, 0.1 mg/ml DNase]. After the cell disruption by BugBuster (Millipore), the His6-tagged protein was purified by immobilized metal-ion affinity chromatography using a Ni-NTA (Qiagen). The protein bound to the column was washed with buffer B [20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5), 300 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 2 mM 2-mercaptoethanol with 5 mM MgCl₂ (or 1 mM DTT without MgCl₂), 15 mM imidazole] and eluted by buffer B containing 250 mM imidazole. Eluted proteins were buffer exchanged into water using 10 kDa molecular weight cut off filters (Millipore).

E. coli ME6 cells transformed with pMWcat-Se, pSecUAG-ADT and pET-GPx1(49UAG) were cultured with additional 34 μg/ml chloramphenicol. For activating some proteins encoded in pMWcat-Se, the growth media were supplemented with arabinose, sodium selenite, and sodium formate at final concentrations of 0.1%, 10 μM, and 5 mM, respectively, prior to IPTG induction. E. coli ME68z cells transformed with pSecUAG-Evol1/2 and pET-GPx1(49UAG) were cultured without zeocin. Their growth media were supplemented with arabinose and sodium selenite at final concentrations of 0.01% or 0.001% and 10 μM, respectively, prior to IPTG induction. Glutathione peroxidase activities were measured with Nanodrop 2000c by using the Glutathione Peroxidase Cellular Activity Assay Kit (Sigma-Aldrich) (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013, 52, 1441.)

Mass Spectrometry

Electrospray mass spectrometry analyses were done at the W. M. Keck Biotechnology Resource Laboratory at Yale. The procedure of Keck: Intact proteins samples were diluted in 50% acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid and loaded into glass nanospray emitters. The samples were analyzed by direct infusion on an Orbitrap Fusion Tribrid mass spectrometer (ThermoFisher Scientific, San Jose, Calif.). The mass spectrometer was operated in Intact Protein mode with an ion routing multipole pressure of 3 mTorr or 8 mTorr. Spectra were acquired at 120K resolution. The isotopically resolved data were processed using Protein Deconvolution 4.0 software (ThermoFisher Scientific).

Results

In order to improve the conversion rate of Ser-allo-tRNA^(UTu) to Sec-allo-tRNA^(UTu), five modifications to the original pSecUAG-A system were made (FIG. 9A). Open reading frames for As SelA and phosphoseryl-tRNA kinase (PTSK) of Trypanosoma brucei (Aeby, et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 106:5088-5092 (2009)) or Homo sapiens (Carlson, et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 101:12848-12853 (2004)) were cloned under the trc promoter in the pTrc99A plasmid vector. The selD gene of As 34mel was cloned into pSecUAG-A and the start codon was changed from AUG to GUG to reduce the expression level of As SelD to produce pSecUAG-AD (FIG. 9E). In addition, an ORF for Treponema denticola Trx1 (Sec-containing thioredoxin) (Kim, et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 461:648-652 (2015)) was cloned after the As SelD ORF of pSecUAG-AD with a Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence. The original UGA Sec codon of Td Trx1 ORF was mutated to UAG for its allo-tRNA^(UTu)-mediated expression. Previous studies indicate that thioredoxin may be involved in Se-transfer in the cytoplasm of bacteria (Tamura, et al., Biosci Biotechnol Biochem, 75:1184-1187 (2011); Kumar, et al., Eur J Biochem, 207:435-439 (1992)) and that recombinant expression of Td Trx1 in E. coli may modulate Sec incorporation in the E. coli proteome (Kim, et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 461:648-652 (2015)).

It was revealed that As SelA should be expressed at a proper level, because excess As SelA molecules sequestered allo-tRNA^(UTu) molecules in a dose-dependent manner (FIG. 12A-12B). PSTK might prevent Ser-allo-tRNAUT translating UAG codons (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013)), because PSTK can convert Ser-tRNA to phosphoseryl-tRNA which is a poor substrate of EF-Tu but is a good substrate of SelA (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 52:1441-1445 (2013); Xu, et al., PLoS Biol, 5, e4 (2007)). Both PSTK species recognized Ser-allo-tRNA^(UTu) according to the observation that their co-expression with a Sep-tRNA:Cys-tRNA synthase (SepCysS) (Yuan, et al., FEBS Lett, 584:2857-2861 (2010); Mukai, et al., MBio, 8, e00561-00517 (2017)) resulted in the formation of Cys-allo-tRNA^(UTu) which inserted Cys into the UAG 140 position of FDH_(H) (FIG. 12C). The FDH_(H) (Cys140) variant retains the activity (Yuan, et al., FEBS Lett, 584:2857-2861 (2010); Axley, et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 88:8450-8454 (1991)). T. brucei PSTK molecules sequestered allo-tRNA^(UTu) molecules in a dose-dependent manner, whereas H. sapiens PSTK did not affect the pSecUAG-A system (FIG. 12A-12B). Therefore, application of PSTK does not help.

Experiments were also designed to determine whether As SelD improved the expression levels of the FDH_(H) variants carrying four or five Sec residues. Note that the E. coli strain tested has its own selD gene in the chromosome. The new pSecUAG-AD system (FIG. 9E) drastically improved the yield of the FDH_(H) variant carrying five Sec residues and also improved the yield of the four Sec variants. The FDH_(H) activities of cell spots carrying pSecUAG-A+fdhF(4 UAG codons) and pSecUAG-AD+fdhF(5 UAG codons) were comparable. The cells carrying pSecUAG-AD+fdhF(5 UAG codons) became darkened within a few minutes, whereas cells carrying pSecUAG-A+fdhF(5 UAG codons) were colorless within a short incubation time. Thus, supply of selenophosphate from SelD to SelA was revealed as a limiting step. While the wildtype As selD gene carrying the AUG start codon gave similar results (FIG. 13A), its effect was not robust (FIG. 13B), possibly due to the SelD overexpression. Since three Sec residues plus one Ser residue failed to properly accommodate the iron-sulfur cluster in FDH_(H) variants (FIG. 13C), the pSecUAG-AD system actually produced FDH_(H) with five Sec residues.

Human selenoprotein glutathione peroxidase 1, or GPx1(Sec49), was expressed and analyzed by mass analysis. The pSecUAG-AD system fully supported the overexpression of GPx1 proteins by the standard pET expression system. Intact mass spectrometry confirmed Sec incorporation (FIGS. 9F and 14A-14F). However, Ser was also incorporated at a significant rate because the peak for GPx1(Ser49) is higher than that for GPx1(Sec49) (FIG. 9F and S4A). Increasing the concentration of sodium selenite (selenium source) in the growth medium from 10 μM to 100 μM did not improve the Sec incorporation ratio (FIG. 14B). In order to facilitate continuous selenium supply to SelD, pSecUAG-AD was modified to additionally encode the Sec-containing thioredoxin of T. denticola (Kim, et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 461:648-652 (2015)). The developed pSecUAG-ADT system produced mixtures of GPx1(Sec49) and GPx1(Ser49) in which the former is the major product (FIGS. 9G and 14C, 14D).

Since this pSecUAG-ADT system (FIGS. 9H and 9E) produced red-colored elemental selenium from 10 μM selenite in the growth media, the cells may have reduced enough amount of selenite. Actually, addition of other proteins and enzymes (e.g., thioredoxin reductase, selenocysteine lyase, putative S-transporters possibly involved in Se-transfer) made no improvement (see, e.g., FIG. 14C).

Thus, selenium supply to SelD was revealed as a limiting step.

Example 10: Variants of Allo-tRNAUTu are Also Functional

Materials and Methods

Sequences >allo-tRNA^(UTu) (Ac-3U variant) GGAGGTTGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACTCTAAATTCCTTG AAATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCTCCTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 32, DNA) GGAGGUUGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUG AAAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCUCCUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 137, RNA) >allo-tRNA^(UTu) (Ac-bU variant) GGAGGTGGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACTCTAAATTCCTTG AAATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 33, DNA) GGAGGUGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUG AAAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 138, RNA) >allo-tRNA^(UTu) (D-3b variant) (also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu1D)) GGAGGGGAACTTCTGTCTGGTGGCAGACGGGAACTCTAAATTCCTTGA AATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 34, DNA) GGAGGGGAACUUCUGUCUGGUGGCAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGA AAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 139, RNA) >allo-tRNA^(UTu2) GGACGGGGGTTCCGTCTGGTGACGGTCGCGGGCTCTAAACCCGTCAGG ACGCTGTGCAGGCGTTAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCCGTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 35, DNA) GGACGGGGGUUCCGUCUGGUGACGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGG ACGCUGUGCAGGCGUUAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCCGUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 58, RNA) >allo-tRNA^(UTu2) (G21 variant) (also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu2D)) GGACGGGGGTTCCGTCTGGTGGCGGTCGCGGGCTCTAAACCCGTCAGG ACGCTGTGCAGGCGTTAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCCGTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 36, DNA) GGACGGGGGUUCCGUCUGGUGGCGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGG ACGCUGUGCAGGCGUUAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCCGUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 140, RNA) >2225 (also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu)) (also referred to as allo-tRNA^(UTu1)) GGAGGGGAACTTCTATCTGGTGATAGACGGGAACTCTAAATTCCTTGA AATGCCTCGCCGCATTGGGTTCGATTCCCTTCCCCTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 31, DNA) GGAGGGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGA AAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 57, RNA) >2459 GGAGTGGGGTTCCGGCTGGTGCCGGTCGCGGGCTCTAAACCCGTCAGG ACGCTGCGACGCGTAAGGTTCGATTCCTCCCCACTCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 37, DNA) GGAGUGGGGUUCCGGCUGGUGCCGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGG ACGCUGCGACGCGUAAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCACUCCGCCA (SEQ  ID NO: 141, RNA) >S15 UU variant GGAGGGCATTTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCTCTAAAACGGTTGCA GGGTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 38, DNA) GGAGGGCAUUUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCA GGGUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 142, RNA) >S15 CU variant GGAGGGCACTTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCTCTAAAACGGTTGCA GGGTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 39, DNA) GGAGGGCACUUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCA GGGUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 143, RNA) >S15 UC variant GGAGGGCATCTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCTCTAAAACGGTTGCA GGGTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 40, DNA) GGAGGGCAUCUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCA GGGUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 144, RNA) >S15 AA variant GGAGGGCAAATTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCTCTAAAACGGTTGCA GGGTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 41, DNA) GGAGGGCAAAUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCA GGGUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 145, RNA) >S15 AU variant GGAGGGCAATTTCAGTCGGTACTGGACGCCGTCTCTAAAACGGTTGCA GGGTCTTAGTCAGCTCTGGGAGTTCGACTCTCCTGCCCTCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 42, DNA) GGAGGGCAAUUUCAGUCGGUACUGGACGCCGUCUCUAAAACGGUUGCA GGGUCUUAGUCAGCUCUGGGAGUUCGACUCUCCUGCCCUCCGCCA  (SEQ ID NO: 146, RNA) The nucleotide sequences of Rx and Sh SelA were optimized for use in E. coli:

>Rubrobacter xylanophilus SelA (SEQ ID NO: 83) ATGCTGGATGCAGAACGTCAGAGCCGTCTGCGTAGCCTGCCTGCAGTT GATGCAGTTCTGCGTGGTCCGGCAGCAGGTCTGGCAGCACGTCATGGT CGTGCAGCAGTTGCAGCAGCAGTTCGTGAAGTTCTGGAAGGTCTGCGT CGTGAAATTGCAGCCGGTGGTAGTCCGGATGTTAGCGGTCGTGCCGTT GCAGAAGGTGCAGCCCGTCTGCTGAGTGGTCGTGGCCTGCGTCGCGTT GTTAATGCAACCGGTGTTGTTCTGCATACCAATCTGGGTCGTGCGGTT CTGAGCGAACGTGCAGCCGCAGCAGCGGCACGTGCAGGCACCAGCTAT AGCAATCTGGAATATGATCTGAGCCGTGGTCGTCGTGGTAGCCGTTAT GATCATGCAGTTCCTCTGCTGCGTGAACTGACCGGTGCAGAAGATGCA CTGGTTGTTAATAACTGTGCCGGTGCAACCCTGCTGGCACTGAGCGCA CTGGCAGGCGAAGAAGGTGAAGGTCCGCCTGAAGTTGTTGTTAGTCGT GGTCAGCTGATTGAAATTGGTGGTGGTTTTCGTATTCCGGAAGTGCTG GAACTGAGTGGTGCCGTTCTGCGCGAAGTTGGTACAACCAATCGTACC CGTCTGAGCGATTATGAACGTGCACTGAGTGAACGTACCCGTGCAATT CTGTGGGTTCATCCGAGCAATTTTGAAATTCGCGGTTTTACCGAAAGC GCAGGTATTGCAGAACTGGCTGGTCTGGGTCCTCCGGTTGTTGCAGAT CTGGGTAGCGGTGCACTGCTGCCGCTGGGTGGTGAACCGCTGGTTCAG GCAGCACTGCGTGATGGTGCCGAACTGGCACTGTTTAGCGGTGATAAA CTGCTGGGTGGACCGCAGGCTGGTATTGCCGCAGGTAGCAGCCGTCTG GTTCGTCGTATGCGTCGTCATCCGCTGGTGCGTGCCCTGCGTGCAGAT AAACTGTGCCTGGCAGCCCTGGAAGCAACACTGCGTGCATATCTGGAA GGCCGTGCCGAAGAAGAAGTTCCGGCACAGCGTATGCTGCGCGAACCA CTGGAAGGTGTTGAAGCACGTGCCCGTCGTCTGGCAAGCGCACTGAGT CGTGAAGTGCCTGGTCTGGAAGTTGGTGTTGTGCCGAGCGTTGCACGT AGCGGTGGTGGCACCCTGCCTGGTTATGAAATTCCGAGCTTTGCAGCA CGTGTTCTGGGTGCAGATGCAGAAGCCCTGGCAGCGCGTCTGCGTGCC GCAGAACCGCCTGTTGTGGGTCGTGTTCATGAAGGTGCCCTGCTGCTG GATGCCCGTACCCTGCTGCCAGGTGATGAAGAAGCAGTTGTTGAAGCG CTGCGTGAGGCAGCCCGTGGTTAA >Sulfurimonas honglongensis SelA (SEQ ID NO: 85) ATGTTCCTGCTGAAAAGCATTCCGAAAGTGGATAAGTTTATCGCCAAG AAAGAGTTTAAAACCCTGGGTAGCGCACTGGTTATGAGCCTGACCAAA GAACTGCTGAGCGAACTGCGTGAAAACATTCTGAATGGTCGTGTTACC ACCTTTAGCGAAGATGAACTGGTTAAAGAGCTGCTGCAGCGTTATACC GAACTGACCAAACCGAGCCTGCAGACCCTGATTAATGCAACCGGTATT ATTGTTCATACCAATCTGGGTCGTAGCCTGATTGATGCAGATGCATTT GATCGTGTTAAAGAACTGATGACCAACTATAACAACCTGGAATTTAAT CTGGAAAGCGGTAAACGTGGTGAACGCTATAGTCTGATTAGCAAAAGC GTTTGTAGCCTGCTGGGTTGTGAAGATGTTCTGATTGTGAATAATAAC GCCAGCGCAGTTTTTCTGATTCTGAACACCTTTGCGCGTAAAAAAGAA GTTGTTGTTAGTCGCGGTGAACTGGTGGAAATTGGTGGTAGCTTTCGT GTTCCGGATGTTATGAAACAGAGCGGTGCAAAACTGGTTGAAGTTGGC ACCACCAATAAAACCCATCTGTATGATTATGAAGATGCCATCGGTAAA AAAACGAGCATGCTGATGAAAGTGCACAAAAGCAACTATAGCATTGAA GGTTTTAGCAGCGACGTGGAATTTGGCGAAATTGTTAAACTGGCATGT GAAAAAGGCCTGATCGATTATTATGATATGGGTAGCGGTCACCTGTTT GATCTGCCGTATGGTCTGGATGAACCGAGCGTTCTGGACTTTATGAAA CTGAATCCGAGTCTGCTGAGCTTTAGCGGTGATAAACTGCTGGGTAGT GTTCAGGCAGGCATTATTGTTGGCAAAAAAAAGTATATCGACATGCTG AAGAAAAACCAGCTGCTGCGTATGCTGCGTGTGGATAAACTGACCCTG GCACTGCTGGAAGAAAGTTTTAAAGCAATTCTGCTGGGCAACAAAGAG CAGATTCCGACCGCACGTATGCTGTTTCGTAGCACCGATGAACTGCGC GAAGATGCAATGCAGGTTCAGCAGAAACTGAAAAAAAACATCAAGACC AACATCGTGGATACCAAAACACTGATTGGTGGCGGTACAACCCCGAAT AAAACCATTCCGAGCGTTGCCCTGGTTATTGAAAGCAAAAACATTAAG GTGAAAAAACTGCAGAAGCTGTTTCGCCAGAAAAGTATTATTGGTCGC ATCGAGGATGATGAATTTCTGCTGGATTTTCGTACGATTCAGAAAACC CAACTGCAGCAGGTTGTTGATGCAATTGATGAAATTACCGACGTGTAA FIG. 15A (SEQ ID NO: 57) GGAGGGGAACUUCUAUCUGGUGAUAGACGGGAACUCUAAAUUCCUUGA AAUGCCUCGCCGCAUUGGGUUCGAUUCCCUUCCCCUCCGCCA FIG. 15B (SEQ ID NO: 58) GGACGGGGGUUCCGUCUGGUGACGGUCGCGGGCUCUAAACCCGUCAGG ACGCUGUGCAGGCGUUAGGUUCGAUUCCUCCCCCGUCCGCCA

Results

Variants of the nucleotide sequence of allo-tRNA^(UTu) and the amino acid sequence of As SelA were engineered. Since allo-tRNA^(UTu) is not the original substrate of As SelA, there maybe room for improvement (Miller, et al., FEBS Lett, 589:2194-2199 (2015)). Some characteristic features of Aeromonas tRNA^(Sec) were each transplanted to allo-tRNA^(UTu) (FIG. 15A-15B). The tRNA^(Sec) species of Aeromonas and some other bacteria have a bulged pyrimidine at position 5 or 5a in the 7-bp acceptor stem (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 55, 5337-5341 (2016); Santesmasses, et al., PLoS ComputBiol, 13, e1005383 (2017)). Two allo-tRNA^(UTu) variants having a bulged 5aU were made (FIG. 15A-15B). The U14:G21 wobble base pair in the D-stem of As tRNA^(Sec) was transplanted to make variant D-3b (FIGS. 10A and 15A-15B).

Another type of UTu tRNA from an alanine-accepting allo-tRNA species (named 9/3-3, see also Examples above) (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)) to make allo-tRNA^(UTu2) (FIG. 15A-15B). Effects of allo-tRNA engineering were assessed by observing the yields of the FDH_(H)variant carrying five Sec residues (FIG. 15C).

To facilitate experiments, the expression level of As SelA was significantly reduced. First, the As SelA expression cassette of pSecUAG-AD (100 copies per cell) was removed and transferred to a low-copy-number plasmid (5-8 copies per cell). Then the AUG start codon for As SelA was mutated to GUG to further decrease its translation level. With these limited amounts of As SelA molecules, the D-3b variant produced the largest amount of the FDH_(H) variant carrying five Sec residues (FIG. 15C). On the other hand, allo-tRNA^(UTu2) and its variant carrying U14:G21 were less active than the original allo-tRNA^(UTu) (FIG. 15D), probably because they are not an inherent substrate of SerRS. Intact mass analysis was performed using the same GPx1 reporter. A modified pSecUAG-ADT system (FIG. 10B) (named pSecUAG-AD3T) expressing the D-3b variant instead of allo-tRNA^(UTu) gave similar results as those obtained with the original pSecUAG-ADT system (FIGS. 10C and 14C-14F). A small improvement was observed (FIGS. 10C and 14E).

Two other SelA species from Rubrobacter xylanophilus and Sulfurimonas honglongensis and six other allo-tRNA variants were also tested. R. xylanophilus and S. honglongensis have a small tRNA^(Sec) like A. salmonicida.

The results are shown in FIGS. 16A-16B. Sh, As, Rx denote Sulfurimonas honglongensis, Aeromonas salmonicida, Rubrobacter xylanophilus, respectively. 2225, 2459, S15 were derived from 9/3-1, 9/3-2, 8/4-1, respectively (Mukai, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 45:2776-2785 (2017)).

FIG. 16A shows that all of the combinations of allo-tRNA and SelA inserted Sec. The fdhF(140Amb) gene variant was used as reporter. FIG. 16B shows that the two allo-tRNA^(UTu) species derived from (9/3-1 and 9/3-2) were more active than the five allo-tRNA^(UTu) species derived from (8/4-1). As SelA was used. The fdhF(3 UAG codons) gene variant was used as reporter.

The results indicated that diverse SelA species can be used for selenocysteinylation of allo-tRNA (FIG. 16A) and that allo-tRNA with a 9/3 structure is more active than allo-tRNA with an 8/4 structure (FIG. 16B).

Example 11: Engineered SelA Further Improves the Translation System Materials and Methods

As SelA Library Construction and Screening

To select As SelA variants with improved selenation capacity a plasmid pNMC-A(2×Am) was constructed which carries an NMC-A variant gene (with two UAG codons at positions 70 and 240) in place of the As SelA gene from pSecUAG-AD-allo-tRNAUTu2D (see above). This NMC-A gene product is only functional if both positions are translated as either Cys or Sec, but not Ser (Thyer, et al., J Am Chem Soc 2015, 137, 46) Thus, higher conversion levels of Ser-allo-tRNAUTu1D to Sec-allo-tRNAUTu1D are expected to result in resistance to higher ampicillin levels in the strain carrying the NMC-A(2×Am) gene. Two libraries of As selA variants (NTT and GST libraries) were generated by using pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG) as PCR template. The codon for Cys173 was randomized as NNK. The codons for Pro68, Leu69, and Gln72 were changed to SST, NTT or GST, and NMK, respectively. An “Amber-less” ARF-1 E. coli strain (Kuznetzov, et al., Genome Biol 2017, 18, 100) was used because non-Amber-less cells overexpressing allo-tRNAUTu1D were unable to resume growth upon subculturing. To carry out selection, 105 electrocompetent cells of E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB strain carrying a selection vector were transformed with mixture of the NTT and GST libraries (500 ng each). Cells were recovered is 50 ml of SOC media for 1 hour prior to addition of antibiotics, and a small aliquot of culture was harvested for colony count. After overnight growth at 30° C., 200 μl aliquots of cell culture were plates on selection plates (Ø 150 mm) containing 17 μg/ml chloramphenicol, 50 μg/ml kanamycin, 5 μM sodium selenite, 0.1% arabinose and increasing concentration of ampicillin. After 30 hours of growth at 30° C., 20 colonies from the plate containing 125 μg/ml ampicillin were subcultured and analyzed individually, and colonies from plates containing 100 and 80 μg/ml ampicillin were pooled together. After plasmid DNA was isolated from each sample, the region of selA with promoter was amplified with oligos err_AsA_RI (5′-CATACGGAATTCCGGATGAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:116)) and err_AsA_BH (5′-aaaaaaggatcCACGTGTTGACAATTAATCATCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:117)) using Herculase II Fusion polymerase (Aglient) for individual clones or GeneMorph II Random Mutagenesis kit (Aglient) for combined clones according to manufacturer's instructions. The original pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG) vector was linearized by PCR with oligos pMW_F_BH (5′-aaaaaaggatccAGGCCCTTTCGTCTTCAAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:118)) and pMW_R_RI (5′-CATCCGGAATTCCGTATGGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:119)) using Herculase II Fusion polymerase. PCR products were purified by a column-based kit, treated with EcoRI, BamHI and DpnI restriction enzymes and purified again. selA fragments from separate clones were ligated with vector individually according to manufacturer instructions, transformed into chemically competent DH5a cells and plated onto LB-agar plates containing chloramphenicol. Recloned selA variants from the 1 round of selection were transformed into of E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB strain carrying pNMC-A(2×Am), and compared to the original pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG) in ampicillin-resistance assay. Ligation was performed using 10 μg of each vector and insert amplified from combined pDNA in 500 μl reaction volume at 16C for 18 hours. DNA was purified and concentrated by column, transformed into ElectroMax DH10B competent cells (ThermoFisher) and recovered in 10 ml in SOC. After 1 hour cells a small aliquot of culture was harvested for colony count, while the rest was transferred into 200 ml of LB containing chloramphenicol and allowed to grow overnight prior to isolation of pDNA. For the 2nd round of selection, 1 μg of pDNA was transformed into of E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB strain carrying pNMC-A(2×Am) and processed as described above, except concentration of ampicillin on the selection plates was higher.

Individual colonies from plates containing 125, 145 and 210 μg/ml ampicillin were subcultured individually for pDNA isolation. It was revealed that all obtained selA variants lack the BamHI site in the plasmid vector region, indicating that they derive from undigested template plasmids for the error-prone PCR, since the BamHI site was added in this PCR step with the oligo pMW_F_BH. Therefore, our random mutagenesis was not productive. selA ORF with the EM7 promoter but without the trp terminator was amplified with oligos PP464 (5′-aagacgaaagggcctCACGTGTTGACAATTAATCATCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:120)) and PP313 (5′-ctggcggctgtgggaTCAGGGCTCCTCGGTCGCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:122)) and cloned into pMWcat vector linearized by PCR oligos PP414 (5′-AGGCCCTTTCGTCTTCAAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:123)) and PP485 (5′-TCCCACAGCCGCCAGTTCCGCTGGCGGCATTTTACCCGACGCACTTTGCGCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:124)) by Infusion. Recloned selA variants from the 2nd round of selection were transformed into of E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB strain carrying pNMC-A(2×Am), and compared to the original pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG) in ampicillin-resistance assay. Also, selA variants listed in Table 5 and recloned in the pMWcat vector were compared to the original pMWcat-AsSelA(GUG) and examined in FDH_(H) assay.

>Treponema denticola selenocysteine lyase (SCL) (SEQ ID NO: 125) ATGAAGAAACGCATCTTTCTGGATAATGCAGCGGGTGCATTTCCGAAA ACACCTGGTCTGGATCAGGCACTGGCAATGGCACTGAATATGGGCACC GGTAACATTAATCGTAGCACCTATACCGAAACCGAAGAAGCAGGTCTG GCAGTTATTGAAACCCGTGAACTGCTGTGTAAACTGTTTAACTTTCAG CCTGCAACGCATGTGATCTTCACCAGCGGTGTTACCGCAAGCCTGAAC TATATCATTAAAGGCTTTCTGAAAAGCGGTGATCGTGTTCTGACCAGC AGCTTTGAACATAATGCAGTTATGCGTCCGCTGGTTCAGATGGAGAAA ATTGGTGTTAAAATTGATCGCGTTCCGGCAATTCTGAAGAATGGTGGC ACCTTTGTTGATACCAGCCTGATTGAAAGCATGATTCGTCCGGAAACA CGTCTGGCCGTATTCAGCCATGCAAGCAATGTGACCGGTTTTATTCAG CCGATTGAAGAAATTGCCAGCATCCTGAAGAAACATAATATTCCGCTG GTGATTGATGGTGCACAGAGCGCAGGTCATATTCCGGTTGATCTGACC CAGCTGAATCCGGCAGCATTTTGTTTTACCGGTCATAAAGGTCTGCTG GGTCCGCAAGGCACCGGTGGTATTCTGTTTGATAAAGATTTTGCCAAA GAAGTCGAACCGCTGATTACCGGTGGCACCGGCAGCGCAAGCGATAGC GAAGAAACCCCGAGCTTTATGCCGGATAAATTTGAAGCAGGCACCCAG AACATTATTGGTATTGCAGGTCTGCATCATAGCCTGAAATGGCTGGAT GCATTTGGCATTCAGAATATCCATAAACGCGAACAGAAACTGCTGAAA CTGTTTCTGGATGGTATTAAAGGCCTGCCGATCAAAATTGCCGGTGGT GAAAGCGCAGAAAATCGTGTTGGTATTGTGAGCATTGATTTCAGCGAA TTTATGGACAATGCCGAAGCCGGTGCAAGCCTGGAAGAGAAATATGGC ATTCTGACCCGTTGTGGTCTGCATTGTAGCCCGAGCGCACATAAAAGC ATTGGTACATTTCCGCAGGGTACAGTTCGTTTTAGCACCGGTCCGTTT ACCATTGAAGAAGAAATCGAAACCGCAATCCGTGCCATTAAAGAACTG TGTCCGCGTGCATAA >Treponema denticola DUF3343 protein (SEQ ID NO: 126) ATGAAAGAGTACCTGATCACCTTTCACACCCATTATGATAGCCTGGTT TGTATGCGTGCAGTGAATAAAACCGATAATGCTAAGACCGGTGAACTG ACCGCAAAACTGGTTCCGGTTCCGCGTAGCGTTAGCAGCAGCTGTGGC ACCGCACTGAAACTGATTTTCAAAGAAGGTCTGGCCTTCGACAAAGAT TATTTCAGCCAGTTTGATTACGACGCCTTCTATTATCTGAGCGAGGAT GGTAAATATGTCGAGGTTTAA >Burkholderia stabilis FDH (SEQ ID NO: 127) ATGGCAACCGTTCTGTGTGTTCTGTATCCGGATCCTGTTGATGGTTAT CCGCCTCGTTATGTTCGTGATGCAATTCCGGTTATTACCCAGTATGCA GATGGTCAGACCGCACCGACACCGGCAGGTCCGCTGGGTTTTCGTCCG GGTGAACTGGTTGGTAGCGTTAGCGGTGCACTGGGTCTGCGTGGTTAT CTGGAAGCACATGGTCATACCCTGATTGTTACCAGCGATAAAGATGGT CCGGATAGCGAATTTGAACGTCGTCTGCCGGAAGCAGATGTTGTTATT AGCCAGCCGTTTTGGCCTGCATATCTGACCGCAGAACGTATTGCCCGT GCACCGAAACTGAAACTGGCACTGACAGCAGGTATTGGTAGCGATCAT GTTGATCTGGATGCAGCAGCACGTGCACATATTACCGTTGCAGAAGTT ACCGGTAGCAATAGCATTAGCGTTGCCGAACATGTTGTGATGACAACC CTGGCACTGGTTCGTAATTATCTGCCGAGCCATGAAATTGCACAGCAA GGTGGTTGGAATATTGCAGATTGTGTTAGCCGTAGCTATGATGTTGAA GGTATGCATTTTGGCACCGTTGGTGCAGGTCGTATTGGTCTGGCAGTT CTGCGTCGTCTGAAACCGTTTGGTCTGCATCTGCATTATACCCAGCGT CATCGTCTGGATGCCGCAATTGAACAAGAACTGGCCCTGACCTATCAT GCCGATGCAGCAAGCCTGGCAGGCGCAGTTGATATTGTTAACCTGCAG ATTCCGCTGTATCCGAGCACCGAACACCTGTTTGATGCAGCCATGATT GCACGTATGAAACGTGGTGCCTATCTGGTTAATACCGCACGTGCAAAA CTGGTTGATCGTGATGCCGTTGTTCGTGCAGTGACCAGCGGTCATCTG GCAGGTTATGGTGGTGATGTTTGGTTTCCGCAGCCTGCACCGGCAGAT CATCCGTGGCGTACCATGCCGTTTAATGGTATGACACCGCATATTAGC GGCACCAGCCTGAGCGCACAGGCACGTTATGCAGCAGGCACCCTGGAA ATTCTGCAGTGTTGGTTTGATGGTAAACCGATTCGTAACGAATATCTG ATTGTGGATGGTGGTACACTGGCAGGTACAGGTGCACAGAGCTATCGT CTGACCTAA >Grx1(11UAG/14Ser) (SEQ ID NO: 128) ATGGTGCAAACCGTTATTTTTGGTCGTTCGGGTtagCCTTACtcgGTG CGTGCAAAAGATCTGGCTGAGAAATTGAGCAATGAACGCGATGATTTT CAGTATCAGTATGTAGATATTCGTGCGGAAGGGATCACTAAAGAAGAT CTACAACAAAAGGCAGGTAAACCCGTAGAAACCGTGCCGCAGATTTTT GTCGATCAGCAACATATCGGCGGCTATACCGATTTTGCTGCATGGGTG AAAGAAAATCTGGACGCCGCAGCTGCGCATCATCACCACCATCACTAA >NMC-A(2xAm) (SEQ ID NO: 129) ATGAGCCTGAATGTTAAACAGAGCCGTATTGCAATTCTGTTTAGCAGC TGTCTGATTTCGATCAGCTTCTTCAGCCAGGCAAATACCAAAGGCATC GACGAAATCAAGAATCTGGAAACCGATTTTAATGGTCGCATTGGTGTT TATGCACTGGATACCGGTAGCGGTAAAAGCTTTAGCTATCGTGCAAAT GAACGTTTTCCGCTGtagTCTAGCTTTAAAGGTTTTCTGGCAGCAGCA GTTCTGAAAGGTAGCCAGGATAATCGTCTGAATCTGAACCAGATTGTG AATTATAACACCCGCAGCCTGGAATTTCATAGCCCGATTACCACCAAA TACAAAGATAATGGTATGAGCCTGGGTGATATGGCAGCCGCAGCACTG CAGTATAGCGATAATGGTGCAACCAACATTATTCTGGAACGCTATATT GGTGGTCCGGAAGGTATGACCAAATTTATGCGTAGCATTGGCGACGAA GATTTTCGTCTGGATCGTTGGGAATTAGATCTGAATACCGCAATTCCG GGTGATGAACGTGATACCAGCACACCGGCAGCAGTTGCTAAGAGCCTG AAAACCCTGGCACTGGGTAATATTCTGAGCGAACATGAGAAAGAGACC TATCAGACCTGGCTGAAAGGCAATACCACCGGTGCAGCACGTATTCGT GCAAGCGTTCCGAGCGATTGGGTTGTTGGTGATAAAACCGGTAGCtag GGTGCCTATGGCACCGCAAATGATTATGCAGTTGTTTGGCCGAAGAAT CGTGCACCGCTGATTATTAGCGTTTACACCACCAAGAACGAGAAAGAA GCAAAACACGAGGATAAAGTTATTGCAGAAGCAAGCCGCATTGCCATT GATAATCTGAAATAA

Grx1 Expression and Purification

Grx1 was expressed and purified as previously described (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013, 52, 1441). In brief, E. coli ME68z cells transformed with pSecUAG-Evol2 and pET-Grx1(11UAG/14Ser) were grown in 2×1 liter LB media containing 100 μg/ml ampicillin, 30 μg/ml kanamycin, 10 μM Na2SeO3, and 0.001% L-arabinose 37° C. until the A600 reached 1.2. The culture was then shifted down to 20° C. and protein expression was then induced at an A600 of 1.5 with 1 mM IPTG and continued for approximately 18 h at 20° C. Starting with cell harvest all procedures were carried under anaerobic conditions (90% N2, 5% H2, 5% CO2) in an anaerobic tent (Coy Laboratories). The cells were harvested and washed in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 300 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 30 mM imidazole) with 2 mM 2-mercaptoethanol (buffers were kept in the anaerobic tent for 4-5 days). Later, the cells were supplemented with 1 mg/ml EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche) and lysozyme (0.1 mg/mL) and subsequently disrupted by BugBuster (Millipore) in the presence of 10 U/ml DNaseI (ThermoFisher). The resulting cell lysate was clarified by centrifugation at 18,000 g for 20 min and filtration (0.22 μm) prior to application to Ni-NTA resin (1.5 ml bed volume, Qiagen) in a gravity flow column equilibrated with 100 mL lysis buffer. Unbound proteins were removed by washing the column with 150 ml lysis buffer. Proteins bound to the column were eluted by 3 ml elution buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 300 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 230 mM imidazole). Up to 1.2 mg Grx1 were purified from 2 L of culture. The Grx1(C11U/C14S) was further separated from the Grx1(C11S/C14S) species by a second-step affinity purification step using thiol-selenol coupling on Activated Thiol Sepharose 4B (GE healthcare). Proteins were dialyzed in 4 liter Thio-purification buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 300 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA) using Slide-A-Lyze dialysis cassette (3.5 kDa molecular weight cut-off, 3 ml capacity, Thermo Fisher Scientific). Total 1.0 mg of the Grx1 mixture was loaded onto 2 mL of Activated Thiol Sepharose™ 4B resin in a gravity flow column equilibrated with 100 mL Thio-purification buffer. The Grx1 mixture was then incubated with the Activated Thiol Sepharose™ 4B for 40 min at room temperature to couple the Grx1(C11U/C14S) to the sepharose. After washing with 150 mL Thio-purification buffer to remove Grx1(C11S/C14S), Grx1(C11U/C14S) was eluted from the resin with 3 mL Thio-elution buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 300 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA, 50 mM reduced glutathione). 0.5 mg (50%) of the Grx1 mixture was recovered using the Activated Thiol Sepharose. Both flow-through and eluted proteins were buffer exchanged into thiol sephorase buffer using 3 kDa molecular weight cut off filters (Millipore). After buffer exchange, protein concentration was measured using NanoDrop spectrophotometer at 280 nm. After TCA precipitation, proteins were mixed with SDS reducing buffer followed by SDS-PAGE and stained by Coomassie Brilliant Blue for visualization. For mass spectrometry, protein samples were newly produced and purified. The modifications in the protein purification protocol are: 1) after harvest, cells resuspended in lysis buffer supplemented with EDTA-free protease inhibitors were subjected to freeze-thaw cycle to facilitate the lysis; 2) MgCl₂ was added to the lysis buffer at 2 mM level to enhance genomic DNA cleavage by DNase I; 3) to remove the excess of glutathione and 2-thiopyridone, the elution and wash fractions after the thiol-sepharose chromatography were buffer exchanged into the buffer containing 50 mM Tris HCl, pH 8.0, 250 mM NaCl, 0.5 mM EDTA and 5% glycerol using Slide-A-Lyze dialysis cassette (3.5 kDa MWCO); 3) the TCA precipitation was omitted. Together, these modification improved the total Grx1 yield to 3 mg, and pure Grx1(C11U/C14S) to 0.9 mg per 2 liter of cell culture (note that this yield is underestimated because about half of the lysate was lost during purification).

MXB Expression, Purification, and Assay

E. coli ME68z cells transformed with a pSecUAG-Evol2 derivative and pET-MXB(384UAG) were grown in LB media containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin, 25 μg/ml kanamycin, 10 M Na2SeO3 and 0.001% L-arabinose at 37° C. until the A600 reached 0.8. The culture was then induced by the addition of 1 mM IPTG, and then shifted to 25° C. for approximately 16 h before harvesting. The cells were harvested and disrupted with a lysis buffer [BugBuster, 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 200 mM NaCl, 5% glycerol, lysozyme, benzonase, and cOmplete protease inhibitor]. The His6-tagged protein was purified by Ni-NTA (Qiagen). The Ni-NTA elution fractions were buffer exchanged into an intein reaction buffer [20 mM HEPES, pH 8.5, 200 mM NaCl, and 0.1 mM EDTA] (Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res 2014, 42, 9976) by using amicon ultra (30 k). About 7 μg of proteins were incubated with DTT (100 mM final) at room temperature for 16 h. After the intein cleavage reaction, proteins were mixed with SDS-PAGE buffer with 100 mM DTT and boiled, followed by SDS-PAGE and CBB staining. The intein cleavage efficiencies were calculated by comparing the protein band intensities by using NIH ImageJ.

Results

Next, the As SelA structure was engineered for a better positioning of allo-tRNA (FIG. 17A). The SelA N-terminal domain binds the elbow region of Ser-tRNA^(Sec) to bring the Ser moiety into the catalytic site of the SelA core domain, and is fixed to the core domain by hydrophobic interactions with a few residues (FIG. 17A) (Itoh, et al., Science. 2013; 340:75). Engineering of this inter-domain interaction may fine-tune the orientation of the N-terminal domain and consequently improve Ser-to-Sec conversion on engineered allo-tRNA. Based on structural information from a SelA-tRNA^(Sec) complex, residues Pro68, Leu69, Gln72, and Cys173 of As SelA, which corresponds to Ile25, Tyr26, Lys29, and Glu129 of Aquifex aeolicus SelA were modified (FIG. 17A). For screening a mutant library of As SelA, a NMC-A β-lactamase variant was utilized in which the important disulfide bond must be replaced by a diselenide bond in E. coli C321.ΔA.opt ΔselAB (FIG. 17B). Several good variants were obtained (Table 5 FIG. 17B). Variants #1.9 and #2.1 carry multiple mutations (A68-I69-E72-R173 and P68-F69-S72-V173), while variant #1.9 also gained a spontaneous Pro2-to-Thr2 mutation. These As SelA variants drastically enhanced the expression of FDH_(H) (with 5 Sec residues) at 30° C. (FIG. 17C) and 37° C. Furthermore, they remained orthogonal to E. coli tRNA^(Ser). Finally, #2.1 was combined with Thr2 to develop SelA^(Evol).

SelA^(Evol) with allo-tRNA^(UTu2D) were subcloned to develop a series of pSecUAG-Evol (No. 1-4) variants, since the relative expression levels of tRNA and SelA appear to be important. The SelA^(Evol) expression level is controlled with four different transcription/translation initiation signals (No. 1>2>3>4). In this way, the allo-tRNA expression level can be regulated by arabinose concentration. Since unwanted suppression of amber codons at the ends of essential genes could impose burdens on the cells, the E. coli ME6 strain was transformed with a plasmid encoding essential genes with a UAG-to-UAA replacement, (Mukai T, et al. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2011; 411:757) to establish ME68z (see Materials and Methods). For FDH_(H) yields at 37° C., pSecUAG-Evol3 with 0.01% arabinose was the best (FIG. 17D). By using pSecUAG-Evol2 with 0.001% arabinose at 20° C., selenoglutaredoxin (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed. 2013; 52:1441, Miller, et al., FEBS Lett. 2015; 589:2194, 20) an E. coli glutaredoxin Grx1(Cys11Sec/Cys14Ser) variant, was produced in a yield of 0.9 mg from 2 L cell culture in a pure form using thiolsepharose chromatography (Aldag, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed. 2013; 52:1441).

GPx1 was produced using pSecUAG-Evol2 with 0.001% arabinose at 25° C. The protein yield and suppression efficiency were about 2-3 mgL⁻¹ and 70%, respectively. An intact mass analysis indicated predominant (>80%) Sec incorporation (FIG. 18A). The increase in the mass of GPx1(49Sec) by 44-46 Da (FIG. 18A) may correspond to a Cys-to-Sec substitution at any of the five Cys positions (Guo, et al., IUBMB Life. 2014 doi: 10.1002/iub.1255). High levels of SelA^(Evol) expression may lead to Sec-allo-tRNA levels in excess of the amount needed for UAG translation; hydrolysis of Sec-allo-tRNA may generate free Sec, which would produce cysteinyl tRNA synthetase mediated Sec misincorporation at Cys codons. Therefore, expression levels of SelA^(Evol) and allo-tRNA^(UTu2D) should be kept moderate. Curiously, in SDS-PAGE analysis, the GPx1 band disappeared, while another main band emerged around 55 kDa when the highest SelAE^(vol)expression level (pSecUAG-Evol1) was employed. Excess SelA^(Evol) may have sequestered allo-tRNA^(UTu2D). Furthermore, SelA^(Evol) was revealed to have affinity to nickel resin through the N-terminal His-rich region. Therefore, its AHSHS (SEQ ID NO:130) sequence was changed to PYR (from another Aeromonas SelA) or ASSAS (SEQ ID NO:110). GPx1 proteins produced with SelA^(Evol) and the ASSAS (SEQ ID NO:110) variant exhibited similar GPx activities, while the PYR variant was slightly less productive (FIG. 18B).

Finally, pSecUAG-Evol2 was modified to encode the ASSAS variant and selenocysteine lyase SufS(C364A) (Mihara, et al., J Biochem. 2000; 127:559) to develop pSecUAG2. Predominant Sec incorporation was confirmed by an in vitro intein cleavage assay of an Mxe GyrA intein (MXB) variant with the substitution of a Sec for the catalytic Cys384 (Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 2014; 42:9976). The yield of the full-length protein (70 kDa) at 25° C. was about 10 mgL⁻¹. Because less than 10% of the full-length protein remained intact after reaction, and because the Ser384 variant is inactive (Haruna, et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 2014; 42:9976), the Sec incorporation rate is estimated to be more than 90% by assuming complete intein reaction.

Compared to earlier tRNA^(UTu) variants, which carry a 13-bp branch, the allo-tRNA system is intrinsically decoupled from the SeB/SECIS-mediated machinery and fully compatible with the canonical translation apparatus.

TABLE 5 As SelA variants. Variant #1.9 also has a spontaneous mutation (Pro2- > Thr2) Name Pro68 Leu69 Gln72 Cys173 #1.1 Pro Leu Thr UAG codon #1.2 Pro Leu Gln Leu #1.3 Pro Leu Gln Gly #1.5 Ala Val His His #1.7 Ala Val Asp Cys #1.9 Ala Ile Glu Arg #6 Pro Val Thr Ala #23 Pro Leu His Asn #2.1 Pro Phe Ser Val #2.2 Pro Ile Asp Arg #2.3 Pro Ile Thr Lys

Example 12: Design and Testing of Saccharomyces cerevisiae tRNA^(Ser) Variants for Decoding Selenocysteine

Materials and Methods

Strains and Growth Conditions

All yeast strains used in this study were derived from either BY4741 (Winzeler, et al., Curr Opin Genet Dev 1997, 7, 771-776) or MaV203 (Vidal, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93, 10315-10320; Vidal, et al., P Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93, 10321-10326, doi:DOI 10.1073/pnas.93.19.10321) (listed in Table 6). Unless otherwise indicated, yeast strains were grown in Yeast Peptone (YP) medium containing 2% glucose, or in minimal medium (MM) supplemented with required amino acids. All cultures were grown at 30° C. KHY1 was created by disrupting the HIS3 allele in MaV203 with a KanMX integration cassette (described in DNA molecules). The KanMX cassette was transformed into MaV203 and plated onto YPD plates containing 200 μg/ml G418 (Sigma). Histidine auxotrophic transformants were validated by patching onto minimal medium plates lacking histidine, and integration of the KanMX cassette was confirmed by PCR.

DNA Molecules

Mouse selenocysteine lyase (mSCL), Aeromonas salmonicidia SelA (AsSelA), and A. salmonicidia SelD (AsSelD) were expressed from the ADH1 constitutive promoter (700 bp) and terminated by the RPL41B terminator. A construct containing ADH1, mSCL, and the RPL41B terminator (sequence listed below) was synthesized (IDT) and cloned into pRS425 to generate pKH24 (plasmids listed in Table 7). AsSelA and AsSelD were codon optimized (sequences listed below), synthesized (IDT), and cloned into NcoI/NheI digested KH24 by Infusion, thereby replacing mSCL and creating pKH29 and pKH30, respectively. To generate pKH39, ADH1-mSCL-RPL41B was PCR amplified from KH24 template using ASR-F and ASR-R (oligonucleotides listed in Table 8) and cloned by Infusion into PciI cut pRS424. AsSelA was PCR amplified using primers adh1-F and rp141b-R and KH29 as template and cloned by Infusion into BamHI/XhoI digested pRS424 and KH39 to create pKH31 and pKH47, respectively.

GAL4, from −15 to +2946 of the translational start, was PCR amplified from S. cerevisiae genomic DNA in two fragments using primers gal4a with gal4b and gal4c with gal4d. Full-length ADH1 promoter (1400 base pairs) was amplified using primers fADH1-F and fADH1-R. The three PCR production were cloned by Infusion into BamHI cut pRS424 to produce pKH58. The gal4-C11S, gal4-C21S, gal4-C11Am, and gal4-C21Am alleles were made by Quikchange (Table 8; primer names indicate mutations) using pKH58 as template, generating pKH79, pKH80, pKH81, and pKH82, respectively. Each of the gal4 alleles were moved into pRS423 as a BamHI fragments to create pKH85, pKH99, pKH100, and pKH101. pKH85 was amplified with primers C11Am-F and C11Am-R to create pKH95. Similarly, pKH97 was made by amplifying pKH79 template using primers C21S-F and C21S-R, and pKH102 contains the gal4-C11S/C21S allele subcloned from pKH97 into pRS423 as a BamHI fragment.

tS(AGA)D2, including −500 bp and +300 bp of the tRNA coding sequence, was PCR amplified from S. cerevisiae genomic DNA using primers tSD2-F and tSD2-R, and cloned by Infusion into BamHI digested pRS425 to create pKH66. The anticodon was changed to CUA by two-step PCR using primers tScua-F with tSD2-R and tScua-R with tSD2-F. The two PCR products were mixed at a 1:1 molar ratio, denatured at 95° C., annealed at 55° C., and extended for 5 minutes at 72° C. to produce full-length tS(CUA)D2. The full-length product was PCR amplified using primers tSD2-F and tSD2-R and cloned into BamHI cut pRS425 by Infusion to generate pKH71. pKH74 was made by inverse PCR using primers tSec-F and tSec-R with KH71 template, followed by Infusion. tU(CUA)1 (tRNA sequences listed in Table 4) was subcloned into KH30 as a BamHI fragment to create pKH77. tU(CUA)2, tU(CUA)3, and tU(CUA)4 were introduced by inverse PCR, amplifying pKH77 template using primers tSec2-F with tSec-R, tSec3-F with tSec-R, and tSec4-F with tSec-R, respectively. Infusion cloning of the PCR products generated pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)2 (pKH84), pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)3 (pKH86), and pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)4 (pKH103).

To disrupt the HIS3 allele in MaV203, a KanMX disruption cassette was made by three sequential PCRs. KanMX was PCR amplified using primers U2 and D2. This product was used as template for PCR using primers his3-F and his3-R. Primers his3-P and his3-T were used for PCR to extend the HIS3 homologous sequences flanking KanMX to 96 base pairs. Integration of the KanMX marker was validated by PCR using primers kanMX-F and lys2-R.

Spot Plating and Growth Assays

Suppression of gal4-C11Am (pKH101), gal4-C21Am (pKH85), and gal4-C11Am/C21Am (pKH95) was analyzed in yeast strain KHY1 containing pKH47, and either pKH77, pKH84, pKH86, pKH103, or pRS425. Each strain was grown in MM lacking leucine, tryptophan, and histidine to stationary phase, then diluted into YPD medium contain 15 μM SeMet and 50 μg/ml sodium selenite and grown for 5 hours. Cells were spotted onto MM plates lacking leucine, tryptophan, histidine, and uracil, but containing 15 μM SeMet and 50 μg/ml sodium selenite in 10-fold serial dilutions. A control plate containing uracil was used to spot each strain and show viability and relative cell densities. Each spot plate was grown at 300 for 72 hours. As controls for selenocysteine-specific gal4 suppression, the KHY1 strains containing pKH47, pRS425, and either gal4-C11S (pKH99), gal4-C21S (pKH100), or gal4-C11S/C21S (pKH102) were grown and spotted using the same media and procedure described above.

TABLE 6 Strains used in this Example. Strain Genotype Reference BY4741 MATa his3Δ0 leu2Δ0 Δmet15 Winzeler, et al., Curr Opin ura3Δ0 Genet Dev 1997, 7, 771-776 MaV203 MATα, leu2-3,112, trp1-901, (Vidal, et al., Proc Natl Acad his3Δ200, ade2-101, gal4Δ, Sci USA 1996, 93, 10315- gal80Δ, SPAL10::URA3, 10320; Vidal, et al., P Natl GAL1::lacZ, HIS3UAS Acad Sci USA 1996, 93, GAL1::HIS3@LYS2, can1R, 10321-10326, doi:DOI cyh2R 10.1073/pnas.93.19.10321) KHY1 MATα, leu2-3,112, trp1-901, his3Δ200, ade2-101, gal4Δ, gal80Δ, SPAL10::URA3, GAL1::lacZ, his3@LYS2::KanMX, can1R, cyh2R

TABLE 7 Plasmids used in this Example. Name Plasmid-gene Reference pRS423 Christianson, et al., Gene 1992, 110, 119-122, doi:Doi 10.1016/0378-1119(92)90454-W pRS424 Christianson, et al., supra pRS425 Christianson, et al., supra pRS426 Christianson, et al., supra pKH24 pRS425-mSCL This study pKH29 pRS425-AsSelA This study pKH30 pRS425-AsSelD This study pKH31 pRS424-AsSelA This study pKH39 pRS424-mSCL This study pKH47 pRS424-mSCL/AsSelA This study pKH58 pRS424-GAL4 This study pKH66 pRS425-tS(AGA)D2 This study pKH71 pRS425-tS(CUA)D2 This study pKH74 pRS425-tU(CUA)1 This study pKH77 pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)1 This study pKH79 pRS424-gal4-C11S This study pKH80 pRS424-gal4-C21S This study pKH81 pRS424-gal4-C11Am This study pKH82 pRS424-gal4-C21Am This study pKH84 pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)2 This study pKH85 pRS423-gal4-C21Am This study pKH86 pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)3 This study pKH95 pRS423-gal4-C11Am/C21Am This study pKH97 pRS424-gal4-C11S/C21S This study pKH99 pRS423-gal4-C11S This study pKH100 pRS423-gal4-C21S This study pKH101 pRS423-gal4-C11Am This study pKH102 pRS423-gal4-C11S/C21S This study pKH103 pRS425-AsSelD/tU(CUA)4 This study

TABLE 8 Oligonucleotides used in this Example. Name Sequence ASR-F GCAGGAAAGAACATGGGGTGTACAATATGGACTTCCT CTTTTC (SEQ ID NO: 159) ASR-R CCTTTTGCTCACATGTCGGGATGCACCATGAGG  (SEQ ID NO: 160) adh1-F CGCGGATCCGGGTGTACAATATGGACTTCCTCTTTTC (SEQ ID NO: 161) rpl41b-R CCGCTCGAGTCGGGATGCACCATGAGG (SEQ ID  NO: 162) gal4a ACAATCAACTGCAAGCCTCCTGAAAGATGA (SEQ  ID NO: 163) gal4b TACAAATCATCAAGCATTTTTTTGCACATATAGGA  (SEQ ID NO: 164) gal4c AAAATGCTTGATGATTTGTAATGAGATTGAGGAGG  (SEQ ID NO: 165) gal4d CGCTCTAGAACTAGTGGATCCAACTAATCAATCTCAA TTACGTTCG (SEQ ID NO: 166) fADH1-F TTCCTGCAGCCCGGGGGATCCGGGATCGAAGAAATGA TGGTAAATG (SEQ ID NO: 167) fADH1-R GGAGGCTTGCAGTTGATTGTATGCTTGGTATAGC  (SEQ ID NO: 168) C21S-F TTCGGTTTTTCTTTGGAGCTCTTGAGCTTTTTAAGTC GG (SEQ ID NO: 169) C21S-R CCGACTTAAAAAGCTCAAGAGCTCCAAAGAAAAACCG AA (SEQ ID NO: 170) C11Am-F GCTTTTTAAGTCGGCAAATATCCTATGCTTGTTCGAT AGAAGACAG (SEQ ID NO: 171) C11Am-R CTGTCTTCTATCGAACAAGCATAGGATATTTGCCGAC TTAAAAAGC (SEQ ID NO: 172) C21Am-1 CACTTCGGTTTTTCTTTGGACTACTTGAGCTTTTTAA GTCGGCAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 173) C21Am-2 TATTTGCCGACTTAAAAAGCTCAAGTAGTCCAAAGAA AAACCGAAGTG (SEQ ID NO: 174) tSD2-F GCAGCCCGGGGGATCCGGATCTTGATTTGATGGGACT TCCT (SEQ ID NO: 175) tSD2-R TAGAACTAGTGGATCCGCGATAAGTCGTGATGCGGT  (SEQ ID NO: 176) tScua-F GTTAAGGCGAAAGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCT (SEQ ID NO: 177) tScua-R AGCCCAAAAGATTTAGAATCTTTCGCCTTAAC (SEQ ID NO: 178) tSec-F CTAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCGGGCAGGTTCGATTC CTGCAGTTGTCGTTTTTACCAAAAATTTTCCTCAATC (SEQ ID NO: 179) tSec-R GCCCAAAAGATTTAGAATCTTTCGCCGCCACCAGACG GCGAAGTTGCCTCAATTTACAAGTAATTTGAATATTA TTAGATAGT (SEQ ID NO: 180) tSec2-F GCCCAAAAGATTTAGAATCTTTCGCCGCCACCAGGCG GCGTAGTTGCCTCAATTTACAAGTAATTTGAATATTA TTAGATAGT (SEQ ID NO: 181) tSec3-F GCCCAAAAGATTTAGAATCTTTCGCCGCCACCAGGCG GCATAGTTGCCTCAATTTACAAGTAATTTGAATATTA TTAGATAGT (SEQ ID NO: 182) tSec4-F GCCCAAAAGATTTAGAATCTTTCGCCGCCACCAGACG GCATAGTTGCC-TCAATTTACAAGTAATTTGAATATT ATTAGATAGT (SEQ ID NO: 183) U2 CGTACGCTGCAGGTCGAC (SEQ ID NO: 184) D2 ATCGATGAATTCGAGCTCG (SEQ ID NO: 185) his3-F ATGACAGAGCAGAAAGCCCTAGTAAAGCGTATTACAA ATGAAACCAAGATCGTACGCTGCAGGTCGAC (SEQ  ID NO: 186) his3-R CTACATAAGAACACCTTTGGTGGAGGGAACATCGTTG GTACCATTGGGCGAATCGATGAATTCGAGCTCG  (SEQ ID NO: 187) his3-P GAAGAATATACTAAAAAATGAGCAGGCAAGATAAACG AAGGCAAAGATGACAGAGCAGAAAGCCCTAG (SEQ  ID NO: 188) his3-T ACATGTATATATATCGTATGCTGCAGCTTTAAATAAT CGGTGTCACTACATAAGAACACCTTTGGTGGAG  (SEQ ID NO: 189) kanMX-F GAATCGCAGACCGATACCA (SEQ ID NO: 121) Lys2-R TTTAAGTGACATCACCCGAAAAG (SEQ ID NO:  131)

TABLE 9 tRNA sequences. tRNA name Gene name Sequence (anticodon in bold) tRNA^(ser) _(AGA) tS(AGA)D2 GGCAACTTGGCCGAGTGGTTAAGGCGAA AGATTAGAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCG CGCAGGTTCGAGTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 147, DNA) GGCAACUUGGCCGAGUGGUUAAGGCGAA AGAUUAGAAAUCUUUUGGGCUUUGCCCG CGCAGGUUCGAGUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 148, RNA,  FIG. 20A) tRNA^(Ser) _(CUA) tS(CUA)D2 GGCAACTTGGCCGAGTGGTTAAGGCGAA AGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCG CGCAGGTTCGAGTCCTGCAGTTGTCG  (SEQ ID NO: 149, DNA) GGCAACUUGGCCGAGUGGUUAAGGCGAA AGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUUUGCCCG CGCAGGUUCGAGUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 150, RNA,  FIG. 20B) SctRNA^(Sec) _(CUA)-1 tU(CUA)1 GGCAACTTCGCCGTCTGGTGGCGGCGAA AGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCG GGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 151, DNA) GGCAACUUCGCCGUCUGGUGGCGGCGAA AGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUUUGCCCG GGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 152, RNA,  FIG. 20C) SctRNA^(Sec) _(CUA)-2 tU(CUA)2 GGCAACTACGCCGCCTGGTGGCGGCGAA AGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCG GGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 153, DNA) GGCAACUACGCCGCCUGGUGGCGGCGAA AGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUUUGCCCG GGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 154, RNA,  FIG. 20D) SctRNA^(Sec) _(CUA)-3 tU(CUA)3 GGCAACTATGCCGCCTGGTGGCGGCGAA AGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCG GGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 155, DNA) GGCAACUAUGCCGCCUGGUGGCGGCGAA AGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUUUGCCCG GGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 156, RNA,  FIG. 20E) SctRNA^(Sec) _(CUA)-4 tU(CUA)4 GGCAACTATGCCGTCTGGTGGCGGCGAA AGATTCTAAATCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCG GGCAGGTTCGATTCCTGCAGTTGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 157, DNA) GGCAACUAUGCCGUCUGGUGGCGGCGAA AGAUUCUAAAUCUUUUGGGCUUUGCCCG GGCAGGUUCGAUUCCUGCAGUUGUCG (SEQ ID NO: 158, RNA,  FIG. 20F)

ADH1-mSCL-RPL41B: (SEQ ID NO: 132) GGGTGTACAATATGGACTTCCTCTTTTCTGGCAACCAAACCCATACATC GGGATTCCTATAATACCTTCGTTGGTCTCCCTAACATGTAGGTGGCGGA GGGGAGATATACAATAGAACAGATACCAGACAAGACATAATGGGCTAAA CAAGACTACACCAATTACACTGCCTCATTGATGGTGGTACATAACGAAC TAATACTGTAGCCCTAGACTTGATAGCCATCATCATATCGAAGTTTCAC TACCCTTTTTCCATTTGCCATCTATTGAAGTAATAATAGGCGCATGCAA CTTCTTTTCTTTTTTTTTCTTTTCTCTCTCCCCCGTTGTTGTCTCACCA TATCCGCAATGACAAAAAAATGATGGAAGACACTAAAGGAAAAAATTAA CGACAAAGACAGCACCAACAGATGTCGTTGTTCCAGAGCTGATGAGGGG TATCTCGAAGCACACGAAACTTTTTCCTTCCTTCATTCACGCACACTAC TCTCTAATGAGCAACGGTATACGGCCTTCCTTCCAGTTACTTGAATTTG AAATAAAAAAAAGTTTGCTGTCTTGCTATCAAGTATAAATAGACCTGCA ATTATTAATCTTTTGTTTCCTCGTCATTGTTCTCGTTCCCTTTCTTCCT TGTTTCTTTTTCTGCACAATATTTCAAGCTATACCAAGCATACAATCAA CTATCTCATATACACCATGGCTAGCATGGATGCTGCTAGAAATGGTGCT TTGGGTTCTGTTGAATCTTTGCCAGATAGAAAGGTTTACATGGATTACA ACGCTACTACTCCATTGGAACCAGAAGTTATTCAAGCTGTTACTGAAGC TATGAAGGAAGCTTGGGGTAATCCATCTTCTTCATATGTTTCTGGTAGA AAGGCCAAGGATATTATCAATGCTGCAAGAGCTTCTTTGGCCAAGATGA TTGGTGGTAAACCACAAGATATTATCTTCACCTCTGGTGGTACTGAGTC TAACAACTTGGTTATCCATTCTATGGTTAGGTGCTTCCATGAACAACAA ACTTTGAAGGGTAACATGGTTGACCAACATTCTCCAGAAGAAGGTACTA GACCACATTTCATTACTTGCACCGTTGAACACGATTCCATTAGATTGCC ATTAGAACACTTGGTCGAAAACCAGATGGCTGAAGTTACTTTTGTTCCA GTTTCTAAGGTTAACGGTCAAGCCGAAGTTGAAGATATTTTGGCTGCTG TTAGACCAACTACTTGTTTGGTTACTATCATGTTGGCTAACAACGAAAC CGGTGTTATTATGCCAGTTTCCGAAATCTCTAGAAGGATCAAGGCTTTG AATCAAATTAGAGCTGCTTCTGGTTTGCCAAGAGTTTTGGTTCATACTG ATGCTGCTCAAGCTTTGGGTAAGAGAAGAGTTGATGTTGAAGATTTGGG TGTTGACTTCTTGACTATCGTTGGTCATAAGTTTTACGGTCCAAGAATT GGTGCCTTGTATGTTAGAGGTGTTGGTAAATTGACTCCACTGTACCCAA TGTTGTTTGGTGGTGGTCAAGAAAGAAATTTCAGACCAGGTACTGAAAA CACCCCAATGATTGCTGGTTTGGGTAAAGCTGCTGATTTGGTTTCTGAA AACTGTGAAACTTACGAAGCCCACATGAGAGATATCAGAGATTACTTGG AAGAAAGGTTGGAAGCTGAATTCGGTAAAAGAATCCACTTGAACTCTAG ATTCCCAGGTGTTGAAAGATTGCCAAACACTTGCAACTTCTCCATTCAA GGTTCTCAATTGCAAGGTTACACTGTTTTGGCTCAATGTAGAACTTTGT TGGCTTCTGTTGGTGCTTCTTGTCATTCTAACCATGAAGATAGACCATC TCCAGTTTTGTTGTCTTGTGGTATTCCAGTTGATGTCGCAAGAAATGCA GTTAGATTGTCTGTTGGTAGAGGTACTACTAGAGCAGATGTTGATTTGA TCGTTCAAGACTTGAAACAAGCTGTTGCACAATTGGAAGGTCGTTTGTG AATGCATGCGGATTGAGAGCAAATCGTTAAGTTCAGGTCAAGTAAAAAT TGATTTCGAAAACTAATTTCTCTTATACAATCCTTTGATTGGACCGTCA TCCTTTCGAATATAAGATTTTGTTAAGAATATTTTAGACAGAGATCTAC TTTATATTTAATATCTAGATATTACATAATTTCCTCTCTAATAAAATAT CATTAATAAAATAAAAATGAAGCGATTTGATTTTGTGTTGTCAACTTAG TTTGCCGCTATGCCTCTTGGGTAATGCTATTATTGAATCGAAGGGCTTT ATTATATTACCCTCATGGTGCATCCCGA AsSelA: (SEQ ID NO: 133) ATACACCATGGCTAGATGCCAAACTCTTCTCATGCTCCAGCTATTGCTC ATTCTCATTCACAACCAGAATCTTGTCCAACTGCTGATGATTCTTTGCC AGATTCATTACCTGATTCATTGCCACAACCATCTCAACAACAAGCTAGA AGATTACCACAAGTCGAACAATTGCTGCAACAACCATTTTTGACCGGTT TCATTGAAGCTTTGTCTAGACCATTGGTTACCCAAGCTGTTAGAGATGT TTTGTCCGAATTGAGACAATCCGAAGCTTTTAGACAACATGGTGTTGCT CCAGAACAAATTGAAGCCTTGATTGCTAAGAGATGCCAACAACAACTAA GACAAAGACAAACCAGAGTTATTAACGCTACCGGTACTTTGGTTCATAC CAATTTGGGTAGATCTCCATTGTCTAGAGAATTGTGGGATGAAGTTAGA GATTTGAACACCGGTTACAACAACTTGGAATTGGATTTGGCTACTGGTA AAAGAGGTGGTAGAAAAGGTTTGATTGCTCCTTTGTTAAGATGCTTGAC TCAAGCCGAAGATTCCTTGGTTGTAAACAACAATGCTGCCTCTCTGTTC CTTTTGTTGCAAGAAATTGCTAAGGGTAGAGAGGTCATAGTTTCTAGAG GTGAACAAATTCAAATCGGTGGTGGTTTCAGAATCCCAGATATTTTGGC TTTGTCTGGTGCTAAGTTGGTTGAAGTTGGTACTACTAATATTACCACC GCCAAGGATTACTTGGATGCTATTACTGATCAAACCGCCTTGGTTTTGA TGGTTCATAGATCTAACTTCGCCATTAGAGGTTTCACTGAATCACCTGA TATTGGTGAAGTTGCTAGAGCTTTACCAGAACATGTTGTTTTGGCTGTT GATCAAGGTTCTGGTTTGACTACTGAAGAATTTGCTCCTGACGAAACTT CTGTTAGACAGTATATTAAGGCTGGTGCTGATTTGGTTTGTTACTCAGG TGATAAGTTGTTAGGTGGTCCACAATCCGGTATTATTTCTGGTAGATCC GATTTGATCAAGAGGTTGGAAAAACACCCAATGATGAGAACTTTCAGAC CAAGCAGAATCGTCTACTCTTTGTTGGAAAGACTGTTGATCCACAAGCT GAACAAATCTCCAATAGGTGAAGGTATTGCTCAGAGAACTTTGTCTAAT CCAGCTGCTATGCAAGCTAGAGCTGACCAATTGATGGCTGCTTTGCCAG GTTGTTTTGTTCCAGTTCCAGCTCAATTGGTTGTTGGTGGTGGTACATT GCCAGATGAATTTTATCCAGCTCCAGCTTTGGAATGTACTGATCCAAGA CCAGCTCAACAATTATTGGATGCCTTGAGAAAATTGCCCGTTCCAGTTA TTGCTACTGTCAGACAACAAAAAGTCTTGTTGAACATGGCTACTTTGTT GCCAACTGAAATTGCCTTGTTGATCGCTCAATTGAAAGAGTTGTTATTG CCAACTCCAACTACTGCTACAGAAGAACCATAATGCATGCGGATTGAG AsSelD: (SEQ ID NO: 134) ATACACCATGGCTAGATGTCCTCCATTAGATTGACCCAATATTCTCATG GTGCTGGTTGTGGTTGTAAGATTTCTCCAAAGGTTTTGGACACCATCTT GAAGTCTCAAATTCCAGGTTTTGATGATCCAACCTTGGTTGTTGGTAAC TCCTCTAAAGATGATGCTGCCGTTGTTGATATTGGTAATGGTCAAGGTA TCGTTTCTACCACCGATTTTTTCATGCCAATTGTCGATGATCCATTCAC CTTTGGTAGAATTGCTGCTACCAATGCCATTTCTGATATCTATGCTATG GGTGGTAAACCTATCGTTGCCATTGCTATTTTAGGTTGGCCAATCAATA CTTTGGCTCCAGAAGTTGCTCAACAAGTTATTGATGGTGGTAGACAAGT TTGTCATGAAGCCGGTATTTCTTTGGCTGGTGGTCATTCTATTGATGCT CCAGAACCTATTTTTGGTTTGGCTGTTACTGGTATTGTCCCATTGAATG CCATTAAGCAAAACGATACTGCTCAAGCTGGTGACATCTTGTATTTGAC AAAGCCATTAGGTATCGGTATTTTGACTACCGCTCAAAAGAAGGGTAAA TTGAAGCCAGAACATGAACAATTGGCTCCAAATGCTATGTGTACCTTGA ACAAGATTGGTCAAAGATTCGCTGAATTGCCAGGTGTTCATGCTATGAC TGATGTTACAGGTTTTGGTTTAGCAGGTCACTTGTTGGAAATGTGTGAA GGTTCTGGTGTTTGTGCTACTTTGGATTTTAAAGCCTTGCCTTTGTTGG ATGAAGTCGACTATTATTTGTCTGAAGGTTGTGTTCCAGGTGGTACTTT GAGAAATTTTGATTCTTACGGTGCTAAGTTGGGTGCTATGGACGAAAGA ACTAGAAACATTATGTGTGACCCACAAACATCTGGTGGTTTGTTGGTTG CTGTTGGTAAAGAATCTGAAGCTGAGTTGTTGGCTATTGCTACACAAGC TGGTTTGACTTTGTCTCCAATTGGTCAATTGAAAGCCTACACCGGTAAT CAATTCATCGAAGTCATTCAGTAATGCATGCGGATTGAG tS(AGA)D2 (including -500 bp and +300 bp of the tRNA coding sequence): (SEQ ID NO: 135) GGATCTTGATTTGATGGGACTTCCTTAGAAGTAACCGAAGCAGCGGCGC TACCATGTAGAGAATGTGGATTTTGATGTAATTGTTGGGATTCCATTGT GATTAAGGCTATAATATTAGGTATGTAGATATACTAGAAGTTCTCCTCG AGGATTTAGGAATCCATAAAAGGGAATCTGCAATTCTATACAATTCTAT AAATATTATTATCATCATTTTATATGTTAATATTCATTGATCCTATTAC ATTATCAATCCTTGCGTTTCAGCTTCCACTAATTTAGATGACTATTTCT CATCATTTGCGTCATCTTCTAACACCGTATATGATAATATACTAGTAAC GTAAATACTAGTTAGTAGATGATAGTTGATTTTTATTCCAACAAGACGA TAGTGGATTTTTATTCCAACAAGTTGCATGTGTGTTTTATTAACGTTTA GATGTGTGTCATAATACTGCATCATACTATCTAATAATATTCAAATTAC TTGTAAATTGAGGCAACTTGGCCGAGTGGTTAAGGCGAAAGATTAGAAA TCTTTTGGGCTTTGCCCGCGCAGGTTCGAGTCCTGCAGTTGTCGTTTTT ACCAAAAATTTTCCTCAATCTTTTTAATTTTACTTTAATAGTACCAGAA TGACAATGCGATAAAAAAGAATAATTTGAAAGGGCACAAAAATGGCAAA TAGTGCTTGGATCGTGAACTCTAGTCTTTTTTATACCTACGGCTGCCCT TCTGCCTGCAGCATACATTAACTATCAAAGAATTCGGTTGGTCGATGAG CCATAAATCGATGAGAAAAAGTATGCTTTAGTGTTACACGATATTTTAC GGACAAACAGAAGGTTTCGATATCGAGGTAACCGCATCACGACTTATCG C

Results

Transfer RNAsec (tRNA^(Sec)) is naturally a poor substrate for seryl-tRNA synthetase (SerRS) relative to tRNA^(Sec), resulting in a low level of tRNA^(Sec) charged with selenocysteine (Sec) within the cell. This is likely due to the minimal number of Sec incorporations events required for expressing selenoproteins. For recombinant selenoprotein production it is desirable to have high cellular concentrations of Sec-tRNA^(Sec), to out-compete release factor for decoding stop codons with Sec. Considering this, and the fact that the anticodon of tRNA^(Ser) is not an identity element for aminoacylation by SerRS, an efficient nonsense suppressor was designed using Saccharomyces cerevisiae tRNA^(Ser) (SctRNA^(Ser)) for Sec incorporation at amber (UAG) codons. Since eukaryotic SepSecS recognizes a longer tRNA acceptor branch Aeromonas salmonicida SelA (AsSelA) was chosen, which works with shorter acceptor branch tRNA^(Sec) molecules and results in highly efficient selenoprotein production in bacteria (Mukai, et al., Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018, 57, 7215-7219, doi:10.1002/anie.201713215). Moreover, AsSelD from this system was also used to produce free selenophosphate substrate for AsSelA. Mus musculus selenocysteine lyase (MmSCL) was added to this system to hydrolyze free selenocysteine for the production of selenide used by AsSelD (FIG. 19).

To generate a tRNA^(Sec) species from SctRNA^(Ser), the anticodon was switched from AGA to CUA and AstRNA^(Sec) identity elements were introduced. Four tRNA^(Sec) variants were tested, each having mutations that may influence tRNA stability and AsSelA recognition (FIG. 20C-20F; tRNA sequences listed in Table 9). To test suppression efficiency and Sec incorporation of each tRNA^(Sec) variant, a reporter was designed using the yeast Gal4 transcription factor, which would show a yeast prototrophic phenotype specifically when Sec, but not Ser, is incorporated. In this way, incorporation as a result of Sec-tRNA^(Sec) biosynthesis, can be distinguished from the Ser-tRNA^(Sec) intermediate species. A similar Gal4 reporter system has previously been used to sense read-through of stop codons without amino acid specificity (Chin, et al., Chem Biol 2003, 10, 511-519). In this case the important zinc-coordinating residues Cys11 and/or Cys21 were replaced in Gal4 with amber codons so that Sec replacement of Cys would maintain zinc coordination, while Ser insertion or translation termination would result in a non-functional protein (FIG. 21A-21B). Functional Gal4 promotes uracil prototrophy through expression of URA3 driven by GAL4 promoter sequences. Indeed, substitution of Cys11 or Cys21 with Ser did not permit growth on medium lacking uracil (FIG. 22). tRNA^(Sec) variants 1, 3, and 4 resulted in suppression of gal4-C11Am on plates lacking uracil and containing sodium selenite and selenomethionine (FIG. 23A), whereas tRNA^(Sec)-2 did not. Interestingly, only tRNA^(Sec)-3 and -4 suppress gal4-C21Am (FIG. 24B), and tRNA^(Sec)-3 was able to suppress gal4-C11Am/C21Am in a selenium dose-dependent fashion (FIG. 24C). These results suggest that tRNA^(Sec)-3 is the most efficient variant tested for incorporation of Sec into Gal4.

To demonstrate the requirement for each system component, each was removed individually and analyzed for gal4 suppression. Yeast strains without either AsSelA, AsSelD, or tRNA^(Sec) _(CUA) do not support growth on medium without uracil (FIG. 24D). Removal of only MmSCL did not completely disrupt the system, likely because hydrogen selenide is produced from sodium selenite reduction, which can be used by AsSelD (Falcone, et al., J Bacteriol 1963, 85, 754-762). 

1. A nucleic acid comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec), wherein the tRNA^(Sec) comprises the consensus sequence of i. (SEQ ID NO: 19) GGRGRRNRNNNNNNNNNGGYNNNNNNNNNNGNYU

AANCNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNRNRGUYCRANYCYNYYNYYCYCCNCCA

optionally, wherein an acceptor stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 87-80 respectively; a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 11-16 with nucleotides 26-21 respectively; an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 27-32 with nucleotides 45-40 respectively; a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 47-53 with nucleotides 64-58 respectively; a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 65-68 with nucleotides 79-76 respectively; or a combination thereof; ii. (SEQ ID NO: 20) GGRRNNNNNNNNNNNNNYGGNNNNNNNNNNNRNYU

AANYNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNRGGUUCRAYUCCYNNNNNYYCCRCCA

optionally, an acceptor stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-9 with nucleotides 91-83 respectively; a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 12-17 with nucleotides 27-22 respectively; an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 28-33 with nucleotides 46-41 respectively; a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 48-56 with nucleotides 69-61 respectively; a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 70-72 with nucleotides 82-80 respectively; or a combination thereof; or iii. (SEQ ID NO: 21) GNNNNRYNANNNNNNNNGGYNNNNNNNNNNGNYY

AANCNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNGNUCRANNCNNNNNYNNNNCGCCA

optionally, an acceptor stem can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 1-8 with nucleotides 87-80 respectively; a D-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 11-16 with nucleotides 26-21 respectively; an anti-codon arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 27-32 with nucleotides 45-40 respectively; a V-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 47-53 with nucleotides 64-58 respectively; a T-arm can be formed by base pairing between nucleotides 65-68 with nucleotides 79-76 respectively; or a combination thereof.
 2. The nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the tRNA^(Sec) comprises the nucleic acid sequence according SEQ ID NO:19-42 or SEQ ID NO:137-146 or the DNA or RNA sequence thereto, or a variant thereof comprising at least 85% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:19-42 or 137-146 or the DNA or RNA sequence thereto.
 3. The nucleic acid of claim 2, wherein the tRNA^(Sec) comprises the nucleic acid sequence according SEQ ID NO:57 or a variant thereof comprising at least 85% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:57, and wherein the anticodon of the tRNA^(Sec) recognizes a stop codon.
 4. The nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acid is DNA or RNA.
 5. The nucleic acid of claim 1 further comprising a heterologous expression control sequence.
 6. An expression vector comprising the isolated nucleic acid of claim
 5. 7. The tRNA^(Sec) formed by the isolated nucleic acid of claim
 1. 8. A host cell comprising the isolated nucleic acid of claim
 1. 9. The host cell of claim 8, wherein the host cell is a prokaryote, archaeon, or eukaryote.
 10. The host cell of claim 8, wherein the prokaryote is E. coli.
 11. The host cell of claim 8, wherein the nucleic acid is incorporated into the genome of the cell.
 12. The host cell of claim 11, wherein the host cell is a genetically recoded organism.
 13. A non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) including sequence elements from a yeast tRNA^(Ser) in combination with sequence elements from a non-yeast tRNA wherein the non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) is a substrate for a SerRS and a SelA and binds to eEF1α.
 14. The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) of claim 13, wherein the yeast tRNA^(Ser) comprises the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:150.
 15. The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) of claim 14, wherein the non-yeast tRNA is a tRNA^(Sec).
 16. The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) of claim 15, wherein the non-yeast tRNA is an Aeromonas salmonicida tRNA^(Sec) comprising SEQ ID NO:148.
 17. The non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) of claim 13 comprising at least 85% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:152, 154, 156, or 158, or the opal or ochre equivalent thereof.
 18. A nucleic acid encoding a non-naturally occurring tRNA^(Sec) of claim
 17. 19. A method of making a recombinant selenocysteine containing protein comprising expressing a nucleic acid encoding the tRNA^(Sec) of claim 1 in a translation system.
 20. A variant of SelA comprising at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NO:79, 80, 82, or 84, wherein the variant does not have 100% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:79, 80, 82, or
 84. 